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GAZETTEER OF INDIA 



WEST BENGAL 

BlRBHUM 


• -f;' 






‘ V •* 


WEST* BENGAL DISTRICT GAZETTEERS 





BlRBHUM 


DURGADAS MAJUMDAR, I.A.S. (retd.), 

former State Editor 


December 1975 




V . • '• • 


. © GOVERNMENT OF WEST* BENGAL 


Price: Rs. 40/- in India 
& $ 8 Abroad 


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?( WBRAKY k 

10 )P, 


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95414 * 

WBD6 (Bje) 


5KS.M: ??? k 

iknerjee u, . 13 / ?> Ariff Road, Calcutta-67. 




PREFACE 


The present volume is the sixth in the* series of West Bengal District 
Gazetteers now being written according to a scheme jointly sponsored by 
the Government of India and West Bengal Government. The former 
Gazetteer for Birbhum was published by L. S. S. O’Malley in 1910. The 
plan followed in this volume was laid down by the Government of India, 
keeping in view the progress and achievements of the people since Inde¬ 
pendence as well as the numerous socio-economic changes that had taken 
place since 1910. 

The preliminary drafts of most of the chapters were prepared by 
Dr. Sankarananda Mukerji, Shri Pranabranjan Roy and Shri Satyaranjan 
Sengupta, Assistant Editors and Shri Kiransanker Sengupta, Research Officer 
(all of whom are still in this office) as well as Shri Nirendra Nath Sen, 
‘Dr. Saugata Prasad Mukherjee, Dr. Ramendra Narayan Nag and Shri 
Biswatosh Chatterjee (who are no longer here). Shri Durgadas Majumdar, 
I.A.S., State Editor (June 1970 to November 1972), revised all those drafts 
and himself wrote a few chapters as well. He submitted the draft Gazetteer 
to the Central Gazetteers Unit for scrutiny as also got it examined by the 
State Advisory Committee. In due course he sent the finished writing to 
the 'press in the latter part of 1972. Shri Abani Mohan Kusari, I.A.S. 
(Retd.), State Editor (December 1973 to December 1974), procured seme 
excellent photographs for inclusion in the volume. My own contribution 
amounts to little more than writing this preface, 1 offer profuse thanks to 
my predecessors in office as well as the officers, past and present, who had 
participated in the drafting of the volume. 

I am indebted to Shri B. Sarkar, I.C.S. (Retd.), Chairman, as well 
Dr. S^ B. Chaudhuri, M.A., Ph.D., and Dr. P. C. Gupta, M.A., Ph.D., 
membAs of the Advisory Committee, for the immense pains taken by them 
in examining the draft and making many valuable suggestions'. I must also 
thank Shri DAK. Guha, I.A.S., Education Commissioner & Secretary, Edu¬ 
cation Department, Government of West Bengal, for his help and cooperation 
in various ,$vays. 

I shall be failing in my duty if I do not express my deep gratitude to 
Dr. P^N. Chopra, M.A., Ph.D., Editor, District Gazetteers and the staff of 
the Central Gazetteers Unit, Union Ministry of Education, New Delhi, for 
their effective role in planning and coordinating the work of preparation of 
the District Gazetteers. The Unit scrutinised the draft of this volume with 
great care and made several helpful suggestions with a view to improving 


tke standard and quality of the publication, indeed, the* personal interest 
taken by Dr. Chopra is a source of inspiration to us. It may also be 
mentioned that a portion of the expenditure incurred on the compilation 
and printing of the District Gazetteers is being met by the Government of 
India. ' . 

Many departments of the .State and Central Governments a # yd branches 
of the district administration rendered valuable assistance by supplying data 
incorporated in this volum». I also express my sincere thanks to Visva- 
Bharati for the pictures connected with Santiniketan, to the Directorate of 
Information & Public Relations, Government of West Bengal for the picture 
of Tilpara Barrage, and to the Directorate of Archaeology, Government 
of West Bengal for the pictures of temples and temple decorations. 

The maps included in the volume have been prepared by Shri Dilip 
Kumar Khan, M.A. Shri Tarapada Maity, Research Assistant has prepared • 
the bibliography and the index. The other Research Assistants as well as 
the Publication Assistant, the Proof Reader, the Stenographers, the Typists, 
the Comparers, and—last but not least — the Head Assistant, also con¬ 
tributed to the preparation and printing of this volume, and my entire staff ^ 
deserve praise and thanks for their competent team work. e 

#. 

Our printers, Messrs N. K. Gossain & Co. (P) Limited, have taken 
considerable time in making the work see the light of day. They may 
have had their own difficulties, including load shedding, and I am grateful 
for their over-all performance. 


Birendra Kumar Bhattacharya 
State Editor 



Calcutta, 

15 December, 1975 


e 


t 


\ „• 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I: GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS « 

Origin of the name of the district (1): Location, Shape 8 c General Boundaries 
(2): Total A?fa and Population of the district (2-3): History of the district 
as an Administrative Unit and Changes in its Component Parts (3-7): Sub¬ 
divisions and Thanas (7): Topography (7- x 1): River System 8c Water Resources 
(11-16): Floods (16-19): Lakes and Tanks (19-20): Geology, Economic Geology 
and Hydro-Geology (20-40): Flora, Forests and Government Forest Policy 
(40-48): Fauna (49-50): Climate (50-52): Table 1—Normals and Extremes of 
Rainfall' (53): Table 2 — Frequency of Annual Rainfall in the district (54): 
Table 3 — Normals of Temperature and Relative Humidity (54): Table 4 — 
Mean Wind Speed in Km./hr. (54): Table 5 — Special Weather Phenomena 
( 55 )- ••• ' ••• . ••• 

CHAPTER II: HISTORY 

’ Pre-History and Proto-History (56): Early 8c Middle Stone Age (56-57): Late 
Stone Age (57-58): Neolithic-Chalcolithic Age (58-62): Ancient Period (63-93): 
Medieval Period (93-108): Modern Period (108-19). 

CHAPTER III: PEOPLE 

Population of the district (120-45): Languages (145-54): Religion (154-63): 
Castes anc^ Tribes (164-75): Social Life (175-77): Appendix I — Area, Houses 
and Population according to Census: 1961 (178): Appendix II — Area, Houses 
and * Population of two Subdivisions: Census 1961 (179): Appendix III — 
Distribution of Select Scheduled Castes People in the Police Station: Birbhum 
District: 1961 (180): Appendix IV — Households on the Basis of Relationship 
(Based on 20% sample) in Birbhum District: 1961 (181): Appendix V-— 
* Marital status in Birbhum District: 1961 (182-83): Appendix VI, Table A — 
Distribution of population, sex-rates, growth-rate and density of population in 
Birbhum District: 1951-71 (184): Table B — Rural and Urban Composition 
of population in Birbhum District: 1961-71 (184): Table C — Distribution 
of population by workers in Birbhum District: 1961-71 (184): Table D — 
Population of Police Stations of Birbhum District: 1971 (185): Table E — 
Population by Religious Groups in Birbhum District: 1971 (186-87): Table F — 
Distribution of Working population by Agricultural and other workers in 
Birbhum District: 1971 (188). 

% 

CHAPTER IV: AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 

Land Rcclamaticvn and Utilization (189-90): Soil erosion (190-91): Irrigation 
(191-97): Agriculture 8c Horticulture (197-204): Progress of Scientific Agriculture 
(204-11): Activities of the Agriculture Department (211-14): Animal Husbandry 
and Fineries (215-19): Forestry (220-22): Flood, Famines and Droughts (222- 
26). m ... 

CHAPTER V: INDUSTRIES 

Old Time Industries (227-31): Rise of new industries (231): Power (231-33): 
Industifes and Manufactures of the District (233-50): State aid to Industries 
(250-51): Labour Unrest and Labour Welfare (251-53): Labour and* Employers’ 
Organisation (253): Industrial Potential and Plans for Future Development 
(253-54): Appendix A — List of Electrified Towns and Villages in Birbhum 
District (254-55): Appendix B — Statement Showing the Registered Trade 
Unions pi the District of Birbhum (256-57). ... ... . ... 


Pages 


56-119 


120-88 


189-226 


227-57 


) 




1 


Pages 


258-87 


• CHAPTER VI: BANKING, TRADE AND COMMERCE 

. ufe' 5 Im„ r RUral “^"ess 

and incidence S? (“ 7 ') • Appendix'll 

chapter VII: COMMUNICATIONS 

“a » 

CHA ^MISCELLANEO US* ^OCcljPATIQNS ^ 

Liv'dihood Pattern /oo^.o^v. p , 

( 33 . 8 ): Learned Profession^ and'miscdlaneouPS 3 ®^ Communit y Development 
A —Consumer Price Index Per Occupations (338-40): Appendix 

Occupational Groups in Sahajapur ?Sh- A™™ ,. and w Ind « of Income by 
Expenditure (in Rs.) on Different I term of ^PP encI,x . R— Per capita Anniwi 

anl na ! 9 £ry^ ) ?Tpptdt P C VIa S - °, C 9 C ,"^ • 

Under Merent Heads in the Block, 0 oVilirtCDfrtStL iure 

CHAI IER IX: GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 

The Ires °! r“ r !“ AdStaiSSt,™ 'ufer^thj^Elaltfdlr^inistration (347-48): 
Estates AcquMon ‘ aS'Tatlf' t ’ , c Dcve "V”™”' 

Block Headquarters (361). P ' " niumty Development Blocks and 


288-32! 


CLIAPIER X: REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


346-61 


S'^U^lld^TlXn^fS re n ve„ue an (S™l , Presen l *!»«"• 

Settlement of the DeSy LanJ from ,tto'T' °J ,h = grease in the. 

April 1762 to April 1765 inclusive StSU^L° Y 7 ~ ' nclusivc •* or from* 
Collections in Birbhum District* tQ6r-7o t , 98n'i- PP eiK!X ® Land Revenue 
Collections in Birbhum District: 1961-63 to 9 ^^? 6 ^. C ~ Excise Revenue 

CHAPTER XI: LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE « 

Introductory — historv of law onri 1 • 

Present incidence o/ crimes (* n ~ a6p tC pnii* Uatl0n 111 ? he district (391-95): 
police organization (390-400)- Excise' A dm Ini or S anizatlon (396-99): Quasi- 
of the Criminal Courts' (401) - Oroanization of th^ r'’ ./ 4 ?°' 01 ) : Organization 
and Lock-ups (402-03) • Appendix A ntr f h C T Courts (401-02): Jails 
offences velating to food sni t ff ! A ? ffcnces under Indian Penal Code * 

07): AppVndi^^^Major „to“ CeS (4 XS SpeC ' al a "<> '<**1 l*w (A 

o ••• * - 391-413 



< ll \l I ER >#II: LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 

(MAP IER XIII; EDUCATION AND CULTURE 

p'; S , t 1 ! ), i! Cal , ba * ,k S ro / ll "< 1 ( 444 - 49 ): Literacy and Levels of education (440--4V 
\ rli Cd I U<:, l ,,0n ( 454 - 55 ): . Secondary education (.156-6*): Collegiate education 
(462-65). Fechnical education (465-66) • Social eduction / 1 ;«\ m • 1 

education (468-70): Visva-Bharati' ( 7 o 4 ): Appendix *„i e " ' Sc nd'u-v 

Education in Birbhum District: 1945-61 (483V n »econtiai) 

CHAP I ER XIV; MEDICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE 

Suney of. Public Health and Medical Facilities in Eearlv Times EiSiS-f- 
lVosninis tlStl rf (:( 8 7 - 9 ‘ 5 ):. Diseases common to the District' (493-512)^ Public 

a: pj ais - |,,ivaic " ,,spi,ais and 

(.,-1-4,. * unite Health Welfare Organization (524-37): Sanitation (527-32). 

C.IIAP EfcR XV: PUBLIC LIFE AND SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS 

Representation of the District in the State and Union Lagislalures (593-49)- 
Newspapers and Periodicals (543-44): Voluntary Social Service Organhations 
( 544-5 0 : Advancement of Backward Classes and Tribes (.551-53). 

CHAPTER XVI: PLACES OF INTEREST 

U-T d i ) thLfe 4): Amdahara (554): Angara (554): Bakreswar (554-5?): Bhadiswar 
in, c Bhadrapui (557-58): Bhandirban (558) : Bhimgarh (558-59): Birchandra- 
B ,rs ' n |P l ' r ( 559 - 60 ): Bolpur (560-61) Dubrajpur (561-63): Canutia 
tnUm' / G * nirisa L . (563-64): Hetampur (564): Itanda (564-65): Uarabazar (565): 

( 5 b 5 : Karidhya (566): Kachujor (366): Kanakpur (566-67): Kenduli 
.36,-68): khustigri (568-69) : Labhpur • (569) : Margram (569-70): Mahammad 
Bazar (570-71): Makhdumnagar (571): Mallarpur (571-72): Muluk (573V 
Murarai (573): Nagar. (573): Nalhati (573-74): Nanur (574-75): Paikar (575 : 
Pakurhans (37b): Pathar Chapri (576): Phulbera (576): Rajnaga. or Nagar 
576-77 : Rampurhat (577): Sainthia (577-78): Santiniketan (578-79): Supur 
(579-80): Sunil (581): Suri (581-83): 1 antipara (583): Tarapith (583-84). ... 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

INDE% 


Pvcus 


4' 4-43 


41 1-83 


1*8 1 .53 1 


53‘V53 


554-84 

585-95 

596-609 


AR E PLATES 


Figs. 1-16 


MAPS : Administrative Division (16): Relief & Drainage (17): Distribution of 
Population (128): Population Densities per Square Mile 1961 (129): Growth 
• of Population 1951-1961 (141): Soil Association — Tentative (145): Percentage 
Worker to Total Population 1961 (336): Employment Pattern 1961 (337V 
Percentage of Literates to Total Population 1961 (448): Primary & Junior 
Basic Schools 1967-68 (449). 



CHAPTER I 


GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


There are several theories on the origin of the name of the 
district. In the Pandit’s Chronicle of Beerbhoom as noted in 
Appendix D to W. W. Hunter’s The Annals of Rural Bengal, 
there is mention how once the Raja of Bishenpur while going in 
pursuit of herons with the help of hawks in the hilly district of his 
kingdom witnessed an unusual spectacle of a hawk being pursued 
by a heron with great fury and ultimately the latter coming off 
victorious. This incident led the Raja to ascribe some mysterious 
quality to the soil. He thought it was Virmati (i.e. vigorous soil) 
and whatever is brought forth by that soil would be endowed with 
heroic courage and power. Hence the Raja named this tract of 
land as Virbhumi. Hunter, however, thinks that Birbhum derived 
its name from the Santali word Bir meaning jungle in which the 
;ract abounded in early days. In the introduction to The Annals 
jf Rural Bengal, Hunter writes: ‘This well-watered land, rich 
in noble scenery, and enjoying during five months of the year an 
sxquisite climate, formed the theatre of one of the primitive 
struggles of Indian history. It stood as the outpost of the 
Sanskrit race on the west of lower Bengal, and had to bear the 
sharp collisions of Aryan civilisation with the ruder types 
prevailing among the aborigines. On its inhabitants devolved, 
during three thousand years, the duty of holding the passes 
between the highlands and the valley of the Ganges. To this day 
they are a manlier race than their kinsmen of the plains, and from 
the beginning of history one of the two kingdoms has borne the 
name of the Malla-bhumi, the'country of the Wrestlers,— the 
other the appellation of Vir-bhumi, the Hero Land.’ 

From historical records it is fairly clear that the district inc.uded 
in Rarh was mainly under different Hindu rulers. But it was 
also under Muhammedan sway at different periods of history. For 
many centuries, however, the Muslim rule in this district was 
nominal and the real rulers had been the Hindu chiefs called Bir 
Raias. Bir was the title borne by the Hindu chiefs who ruled 
the district just as Man, Singh and Dhal were the titles of the 
chiefs of Manbhum, Singhbhum and Dhalbhum respectively. It 
is quite possible, therefore, that the district was named ‘Birbhum’ 
to indicate simply the territory of the Bir Rajas. 


Introductory 


Origin of the 
name of the 
district 



2 


BIRBHUM 


Location, 
shape 8c' 
General 
boundaries 


Total area and 
population of 
the district 


Birbhum is the northernmost district of the Burdwan Division. 
It lies between 23°32 / 30 ,/ and 24°35'00" north latitude and 
88°0T40" and 87°05'25" east longitude. 1 In shape it looks like 
an isosceles triangle. The apex is situated at the northern extre¬ 
mity not far south of the point where the Ganges and the hills 
of the Santal Parganas of Bihar begin to diverge while the river 
Ajay forms the base of this triangle. Birbhum is bounded on 
the north and west by the Santal Parganas, on the east by the 
districts of Murshidabad and Burdwan, and on the south by 
Burdwan, from which it is separated by the Ajay river. Thus 
only the southern boundary is a natural one. In early days when 
Santal Parganas was a part of Birbhum the western boundary was 
more natural and geographically the district comprised a complete 
natural region. 

Extending over an area of 1,757.12 square miles (4,550.94 sq.km.) 
the district was inhabited by 17,79,805 persons, of which 9,03,118 
were males and 8,76,687 females according to the Census of 1971 
In terms of population it ranks eleventh among the districts of 
West Bengal with 4.01 per cent of the State’s population." In 
terms of area it holds the ninth place comprising 5.10 per cent of 
the State’s area. Only the districts of Calcutta, Howrah, Hooghly 
and Nadia have a higher population load with smaller area than 
Birbhum. 

The statements below indicate the changes in the number of 
inhabited villages during 1901 and 1961 and the area and popula¬ 
tion density of police stations in 1961. 


Year 

No. of inhabited villages 

Area in sq. miles 

1901 

3,317 

1,752.0 

1911 

2,216 

1,752.0 

1921 

2,299 

1,753.0 

1931 

2,402 

1,699.0 

1941 

2,211 

1,743.0 

1951 

2,207 

1,742.9 

1961 

2,234 

(a) 1,757.12 

(b) 1,743.0 

“The 

variations over sixty years are largely due to changes in 

number of mamas by Settlement Operations, 

changes in number 


1 Source: Director, Map Publication, Dehra Dun. In 1910 the district 
extended between 23° 35' and 24" 35' north latitude and between 
87 °io' and 88°2' east longitude. (Vide L. S. S. O’Malley — Bengal 
District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1910. p. 1.) 

2 Provisioned figures 1971 Census. 

(a) According to tin Surveyor General of India. 

(b* According to computation made in the Census Oliice horn the last 
published Jurisdiction Lists. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


3 


of uninhabited nuiuzcis and absorption of rural mauzus by towns.” 1 
The district is predominantly rural. Out of the total population 
of 17,79,805 according to the Census of 1971, only 1,25,238 were 
urban dwellers. Though the urban population was only 7.04 
per cent, its growth rate of 24.28 was slightly higher than the 
growth rate of the rural population which was 22.98 during the 
decade 1961-71. 


AREA OF POLICE STATIONS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT & POPULATION 

DENSITY 



Sq. miles 

Sq. Kilometres 

Density per 
sq. mile 

at Subdivision 

1,136.9 

2,944.6 

760 

Suri P.S. 

113.1 

292.9 

932 

Rajnagar P.S. 

85.2 

220.7 

493 

Mahammad Bazar P.S. 121.0 

313.4 

548 

Sainthia P.S. 

120.1 

311.1 

872 

Dubrajpur P.S. 

138.8 

359.5 

704 

Khayrasol P.S. 

105.6 

273.5 

731 

llambazar P.S. 

100.2 

259.5 

687 

Bolpur P.S. 

128.8 

333.6 

869 

Labhpur P.S. 

104.7 

271.2 

875 

Nanur P.S. 

119.4 

309.2 

825 

[purhat Subdivision 

606.1 

1,569.8 

960 

Mayureswar P.S. 

147.1 

381.0 

872 

Rampurhat P.S. 

182.4 

472.4 

955 

Nalhati P.S. 

138.8 

359.5 

1,009 

Murarai P.S. 

137.8 

356.9 

1,011 


Birbhum was formerly held as a military fief by the Pathan 
Rajas to guard the plains of Bengal against the hill tribes of 
Chotanagpur. ‘This district’, wrote Mr. I. Grant, Chief SarisPtadar 
of Bengal, in 1786, ‘was held by a tenure different to any other 
known in the country. In some respects it corresponded with 
the ancient military fiefs of Europe, inasmuch as certain lands were 
held lakhiraj or exempted from the payment of rent, and solely 
appropriated for the maintenance of troops.’ Elsewhere he 
writes:— ‘Birbhum, with all its ascertained dimensions from the 


The history of 
the district as 
an administra¬ 
tive unit and 
the changes in 
its component 
parts 


i B. Ray — Census igOi, West Bengal District Census Handbook: Birbhum. 
Calcutta, 1966. p. 5. 

(a) According to the Surveyor General of India. 

(b) According to computation made in the Census Office from the last 
published jurisdiction Lists. 



4 


BiRBHUM 


year 1760, contains, according to the Rennell, 3,858 British 
square miles, and is the fourth in magnitude of all the single 
zamindaris of Bengal, being, next to Burdwan, in superficial 
measures the most extensive.’ 1 * These 3,858 square miles com¬ 
prised a large area outside the present district, viz. the whole 
of the Deoghar subdivision and other parts of the Santal Parganas." 

During this period the Company managed its business in two 
distinct systems: by covenanted servants who received regular 
pay, and invested the money entrusted to them without making 
any private profit, and by unsalaried agents, who contracted to 
supply goods at a certain rate, and might make what they could 
in the bargain. The first class bore the titles of residents, senior 
merchants, junior merchants, factors, and sub-factors. Their posts 
formed the most lucrative in the Company’s gift, and-attracted 
its best men. Even after the grant of Diwani in 1765, the 
Company continued this system of double administration till 
1769, when English Supervisors were appointed to each of the. 
great divisions of the province. 

The duties of a supervisor were to make minute local investiga¬ 
tions and to gather as much information regarding revenue matters 
as possible. To start with, the Supervisors were under the 
immediate control of the Resident at Murshidabad. Under the 
administrative changes adopted in July 1770, they came under 
the supervision 'of the Controlling Council of Revenue at 
Murshidabad. 3 This marked the first phase of a transition from 
a mere trading body to that of a high administrative organization. 
In 1772 the Supravisors, employed in the management of the 
collection of revenue, were first styled as ‘Collectors’. 

In the correspondences of the ‘Committee of Revenue’ which 
began on 13th October 1772 and held its last meeting on 23rd 
November 1773, there is mention of Birbhum Collectorship with 
Pachet and Vishnupur. Separate Collectors were appointed for 
Pachet and Vishnupur by an order dated 19th January 1773, 
but they were recalled by another order of the Committee of 
Revenue dated 28th May 1773 and the revenue farmers were 
permitted to pay their revenues at Calcutta. 

In a letter to the Governor-General dated 21st September 1785, 
the Court of Directors remarked that frequent innovations were 
attended with much inconvenience and avoidable expense and 
that it was time to adopt a settled plan. They, accordingly, 
directed that a Board of Revenue be formed to which should 
belong the work of the whole administration, settlement, collection 


i L. 8. S. b’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, ic)to. 
p. 83. 

a ibul. p. 84. 

3 From 1765 to 1787 Birbhum was administered from Murshidabad. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


5 


and receipt of every kind of revenue together with the control 
of the officers concerned. Thus, the Committee of Revenue was 
replaced in 1786 by the ‘Board of Revenue’. To this Board of 
Revenue the Governor-General Cornwallis, addressed a letter v>n 
5th February 1787, urging that revenue matters be settled in a 
way which would be of mutual advantage to the Government as 
also the inhabitants of the land. He recommended that special 
care should be taken to ensure that zamindaries remained undivided 
under one authority and, secondly, while settling several parganas 
into a Collectorship their contiguity should be considered. On 
the basis of these recommendations, John Shore submitted his 
well-known plan to the Board of Revenue on the 13th March 
1787, under which the different establishments for the collection 
of revenue were brought down to 24. 

These changes affected Birbhum in the following manner. It 
appears that some time prior to 1785, Vishnupur and Birbhum 
had been included within the district of Murshidabad. On 
18th April 1786, the Committee of Revenue determined to form 
two separate collectorships for Birbhum and Vishnupur and 
accordingly Foley was placed in charge of Birbhum and Pye 
in charge of Vishnupur. But with the implementation of Shore’s 
Plan. Vishnupur and Birbhum were united into a compact district 
according to a notification published in the Calcutta Gazette in 
March 1787. Bankura continued to form one district with 
Birbhum until 1793 when it was transferred to the Burdwan 
Collectorate. In a letter of October 8, 1793, the Collector of 
Birbhum informed the Secretary to the Board of Revenue that 
Vishnupur had already been separated from Birbhum and annexed 
to the ‘Zilla Burdwan’. 1 

Just before the Permanent Settlement, Vishnupur was transferred 
to Burdwan (1793). Under Governor General’s order dated 
27th October 1793, 250 villages were transferred from Murshidabad 
to Birbhum for administrative convenience. A few years later 
the zamindari of Patkum, Sarhat and Deoghar were added to 
Birbhum. The area of Birbhum according to quinquennial register 
of 1799 comprised 669 sq. miles. This was exclusive of parganas 
Sarhat and Deoghar which extended over 1,114 sq. miles. 

In 1793 Birbhum constituted of 26 parganas divided into 
10 thanas, Afzalpur (now Khayrasol), Soorie, Nangilia (now 
Rajnagar), Kissennagar, Kusbah, Labhpur, Mayureswar-, Deoghar, 
Uparbandha and Shapara. In 1799 Pachet and Jhalda were 
transferred from Ramgarh zila. This was done due to the 
contumacy of the old zamindars and the raids of Chuars in 
1795-98. Sixteen Jungle Mahals, Pachet, Begmundy, Bogan, 

i A Mitra (Ed.)—West Bengal District Records: New Series. Calcutta, 
1 95*1 • P- 1-1 • 



6 


BIRBIIUM 


Kaoden, taraf Bahapur, Katlas, Habila, Jhalda, Jharria, Jayapur, 
Mukundapur, kismat Nawagarh, Kismat Chaontly, Taorang, Tong, 
Nagarkiari and Patkum were transferred from Birbhum to the 
new district of Jungle Mahal under regulation XVIII of 1805 
as a consequence of the violent disturbances in the area and 
the raids of Chuars on settled tracts. 

River Ajay was made the southern boundary of the district on 
9th October 1806. But under orders dated 1st October 1806, 
the Mahal Panra was transferred to Jungle Mahal. .Under 
regulation I of 1806 the part of Murshidabad west of the 
Bhagirathi comprising six thanas, Shakulipore, Panchtopee (now 
Burwan), Doongram, Paisa, Nalhati and Kahrun was transferred 
to Birbhum. Under the same regulation thana Ketugram was 
transferred from Burdwan to Birbhum. 

In 1809 Birbhum Collectorate was abolished and it was 
administered from Murshidabad again, an Assistant Collector 
remaining in charge at Suri. Revenue collections of Vishnupur 
and Jungle Mahal were transferred to Burdwan under an Assistant 
Collector at Bankura. This was done for the reduction of 
expenditure. In the same year the greater part of Murshidabad 
was transferred to Birbhum Judge. In 1820 again, Birbhum of 
1809 with the exception of a few estates which were transferred 
to the Jungle Mahal, was recreated a separate Collectorship. 1 
Pressure of heavy work and public inconveniences were the main 
cause behind it. In 1834 Paisa was retransferred to Murshidabad 
but Bharatpur was included in Birbhum. In 1839 Paisa again 
came back to Birbhum. Three thanas: Ukrah, Churulia and 
Sanipahari; were transferred in 1838 from Bankura to Birbhum. 
In 1846-47 these three thanas reverted to Bankura. 

In 1842 the post of the Collector and Magistrate was abolished 
and a Joint Magistrate and Deputy Collector was placed in 
charge of Birbhum because of lack of work. Before 1853 a 
separate Magistrate, Collector and Judge was appointed. In 
1854 thana Bharatpur was transferred to Murshidabad. 

At the time of the Revenue Survey during 1849-52 the district 
covered 37 parganas with a total area of approximately 3,142 sq. 
miles. After the Santal Rebellion in 1855 the upland tracts to 
the west which had been a rallying point for the rebels were 
transferred to the newly constituted district of Santal Parganas. 
Thus four. Parganas Sarhat Deoghar, Pubbia, Kundapit Karayea, 
Muhammadabad and part of the fifth, Darin Mouleswar were 
detached from Birbhum and the area of Birbhum was reduced 
to 1,344 sq. miles. In 1856 offices of Magistrate and Collector 
were amalgamated. In 1859 thana Ketugram was retransferred 


i L, S. S. O’Malley—op. cit. p. 27. 




GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


7 


to Burdwan. In 1872 thanas Rampurhat, Nalhati and Paisa were 
transferred to Murshidabad (leaving Birbhum with only 8 police 
stations) but returned to Birbhum in 1879, in which year thana 
Burdwan with an area of 108 square miles was transferred to 
Murshidabad In 1881 the area of the district was, 1,756 sq. 
miles. Thus in 1901 the district comprised nine police stations, 
five, viz. Suri, Dubrajpur, Bolpur, Sakulipur and Labhpur under 
Sadar subdivision and four, viz. Rampurhat, Nalhati, Murarai 
and Mayureswar under Rampurhat subdivision. There was no 
change during the next decade. But during 1911-21, Suri police 
station was divided into four police stations, viz. Suri, Mahammad 
Bazar, Rajnagar and Sainthia ; Dubrajpur was divided into three, 
viz. Dubrajpur, Khayrasol and Shahapur ; and Bolpur also was 
divided into three police stations, viz. Bolpur, Ilambazar and 
Ahmadpur. Nanur was designated as a police station in place 
of Sakulipur. In course of the next decade of 1921-31, Ahmadpur 
and Sainthia were merged as one police station of Sainthia. 
Similar is the case of Dubrajpur and Shahpur. Since 1931 the 
district has only fourteen police stations. 1 

“The district comprises two subdivisions namely, Sadar and 
Rampurhat. Suri is the headquarters of the district and of 
the Sadar Subdivision as well. Rampurhat town is the head¬ 
quarters of the only outlying subdivision. The sadar subdivision 
is constituted of ten police stations namely, Suri, Rajnagar, 
Muhammad Bazar, Sainthia, Dubrajpur, Khayrasole, Ilambazar, 
Bolpur, Labhpur and Nanur. The Rampurhat subdivision covers 
the police stations of Mayureshwar, Rampurhat, Nalhati and 
Murarai. 

“The district has six towns, three administered by the Boards 
of Municipal Commissioners and the other three are non- 
Municipal urban areas. The Sadar subdivision has two municipal 
towns, Suri and Bolpur and two non-municipal towns of Sainthia 
and Dubrajpur. The Rampurhat subdivision has one municipal 
town of Rampurhat and the other non-municipal town of Nalhati. 
Nalhati town has been declared as an urban area for the first 
time in 1961 Census. 

“In the district the total number of mauzas borne in the 
Jurisdiction Lists is 2,486, of which 239 are uninhabited. The 
total number of inhabited mauzas is 2,234, and a number of 
13 mauzas are included fully in the urban areas of the'district.” 2 


Birbhum is a part of the Rarh area ; the soil and landscape 
is very much akin to the Rarh areas of Murshidabad, Burdwan, 

1 ibid. p. 27. 

2 ibid. p. 5. 


Subdivisions 
and thanas 


Topograph*' 



8 


BIRBIIUM 


General 

configuration 


Bankura and Midnapur. The western portions comprising 
Khayrasol, Rajnagar, Dubrajpur, Suri, Mahammad Bazar and 
Bampurhat thanas are at the base of the heavily dissected plateau 
of Santal Parganas projecting south-southeast. Proceeding east¬ 
ward the projecting spurs become mere undulations. The high¬ 
lands to the west are located on the hard impervious crystalline 
rocks (Archaeans), while the rest is made up of the Gondwana 
sediments, the Tertiaries, the laterites (both primary and detrital) 
and the alluvium. The Gondwanas and the Tertiaries probably 
extend below the detrital laterites and the alluvium. These 
sedimentaries in their turn are underlain by basic lava flows 
some outcrops of which are found in the Nalhati thana. Through¬ 
out almost the entire area of the district the surface is broken 
by a succession of undulations, the general trend of- which is 
from north-west to south-east. Near the western boundary they 
rise into high ridges capped by laterite and separated by valleys 
a mile or more in width. These ridges are actually spurs b 11f 
appear like sea-cliffs. To the south-east these upland ridges 
and their ramifications fade out, the vallej's become shallow, and 
gradually merge into the broad alluvial plains of the Gangetic 
delta. The larger spurs are covered with stunted sal forest, only 
the bottoms of the valleys being cultivated. As they become 
less steep, rice is grown in terraces up the sides, and only the 
broad, fiat, and usually dry summits are left untilled, forming in 
the rains scanty pasture grounds. The minor undulations are 
terraced up to the top. 

The rapidity with which hillocks change to ridges, ridges to 
ramified undulations, and undulations to level country varies 
considerably. In the extreme north of the Rampurhat subdivision 
the ridges are high and amount almost to hills. Being extensions 
of the low Rajmahal hills these hillocks are of basaltic formation. 
They cease abruptly, and throughout the greater part of the 
Nalhati and Rampurhat thanas the surface, almost from the 
foot of the Chotanagpur plateau is only slightly hummocky. The 
unbroken deltaic plain is not, however, met with till beyond the 
eastern boundary of the district. In the Nalhati thana there are 
a few detached hillocks such as Seurapahari, Nanchpahari, 
Kantapahari and Kangalpahari. The western portions of the 
Mahammad Bazar and Suri thanas are covered with high spurs 
extending many miles to the south-east, but whereas in the 
northern part of this tract they are succeeded at once by perfectly 
level ground, on the south of the valley of the Mayurakshi thev 
sink into undulations, and, after nearly disappearing, rise again 
to the dimensions of low hillocks. The ridges on the south 
bank of the Mayuiakshi pass into flat country east of Suri, but 
swell into well-raised uplands near Sainthia. Further east the 



General ^'physical aspects 


9 


undulations extend beyond the railway line some miles east of 
Labhpur, and even south of Bolpur, where the railway line runs 
through a deep cutting of laterite rock. The Tertiary and 
Pleistocene deposits are mostly covered by a variable thickness 
of laterite which even envelopes some portions of the peneplained 
and highly weathered gneissic terrain to the west. Along the 
north of the Ajay, to the south of Labhpur and Bolpur, the 
country is absolutely flat. The hollows between the ridges form 
natural - drainage channels, which in the wider valleys are streams of 
considerable volume and in a few cases expand into broad rivers, 
which even within Birbhum have a small and shallow current 
throughout the greater part of the year. 1 

To the north of 20° 20'N. in the Murarai thana the land slopes 
north-northeast as is evident from the flow of the Pagla Nadi 
and its tributary the Suri Nadi. Further north the Bansloi Nadi 
also flows north-northeast. This direction of slope is in marked 
contrast to the east-southeasterly flowing streams of Birbhum. 
The Gamri-Pagla interfluve is the divide from where this change 
of slope occurs. This divide itself has no noticeable relief. As 
is evident from the meandering bed of the Pagla, the slope is 
very gentle. These north-east flowing streams give off numerous 
spill channels as soon as they enter Murshidabad district and 
has formed within Birbhum several swamps. The highest point 
in Murarai is only 232 feet at Dhuria Pahar, the site of Rajgan 
Stone Works (24° 33'N. and 87° 49'E.). In Nalhati the highest 
point is 263 feet (24°19'N. and 87°47'E.) near the State border. 
The general slope of the Rampurhat thana is from west to east 
dominated by the east flowing left bank tributaries of the 
Dwaraka. The slope of Mayureswar thana above 24°N. latitude 
is northerly and south of it easterly. These two different slope 
directions begin from the Mahammad Bazar thana where the 
Dwaraka takes a north easterly bend and the Mayurakshi throws 
off a distributary, the Manikarnika. The interfluve between these 
two master streams is only 3 to 4 miles broad at a point and is 
dominated by the 150 feet contour line. To the east of the 
E.I.R. Loop line and extreme south west of the Mayureswar 
thana, existence of large water bodies and the Manikarnika 
distributary point to the flatness of this interfluve. 

To the south the Ajay dominates the landscape with its shoals 
and sandy bed — miles wide at places. The Ajay inters the 
district at about 300 feet (87°08'E. & 23°46'N.) and leaves at 
75 feet (87°57 / 30 // E. & 23°37'30"N.). The Ajay is also the limit 
of the forest belt which stretches across Burdwan. From Jaydeb 
Kenduli on the left bank of the Ajay the scenery is extremely 


Variations in 
sea-level and 
lines of natural 
drainage 


i I.. S. S. O'Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 
pp. 2-3. 





10 


BTRBIIUM 


picturesque. To the north lies the cultivated lands studded with 
tanks and to the south the dry river bed, the embankments and a 
dense sal jungle. There is a linear pattern of settlement on the 
left bank. In contrast, settlements, except where protected by 
embankments, avoid the vicinity of the right banks in Burdwan 
district. 

The rolling upland topography in between Mayurakshi and the 
Ajay is known for its splendour and picturesque variety. The 
general gradient is from north-west to south-east. However, the 
Sal which downstream is known as the Kopai river flows from 
north-northwest to east-southeast and after crossing the 250 ft. 
contour line, flows west-northwest to east-southeast. The 
Bakreswar and the Chandrabhaga Nalas describe similar courses 
after crossing the 200 ft. contour line. It is interesting that the 
Andal-Sainthia Chord line runs along the tract where this change 
in the direction of slope occurs. The Mayurakshi describes a 
perennial channel only after it descends below the 200 feet contour 
line but becomes dry again between 87° 45' & 87° 55' E. The Kopai 
meanders in a semi-circle from west-northwest to east-southeast 
and finally to north-east from 23°4TN. and 87 o 37'30"E. From 
this point the right bank tributaries of the Kopai display severe 
scars of gully erosion. This has resulted in the badland topo¬ 
graphy to the north of Binuria, Sri Niketan, Sural, Santiniketan 
and Makarampur. Very interestingly, the badland topography in 
this part does not extend below the 150 feet contour and the banks 
of the Kopai itself is free from the ravages of gully erosion. 

In between the Ahmadpur-Katwa Railway line below Labhpur 
and the Bakreswar, there has been extensive gully erosion by 
tributaries of the Bakreswar, very similar to those founff above 
Santiniketan. The combined streams of the Bakreswar and the 
Kopai is called the Koiya Nala. The Koiya is pefennial, whereas 
the Mayurakshi though a larger stream is non-perennial in the 
same longitudinal belt. The distributaries of the Mayarakshi take 
off from the left bank and flow parallel to the mother stream in 
Birbhum district. The Koiya gives off a distributary, the Kandar 
Nala from its right bank. It flows parallel to the Koiya aijd joins 
it again through the swamps near the district border. 

The Mayurakshi leaves the district just after it crosses the 100 
feet contour but enters the district at about 228 feet. Starting 
from this point the old wall of Nagar runs for about 23 miles 
within Birbhum and extends for another couple of miles into the 
Santal Parganas district. Fortified by this wall and encircled by 
hummocky terrain, Rajnagar commanded a very strategic loca¬ 
tion. The wall runs from north (24°0T N. & 87°23'30" E. on the 
district boundary) to south (23°51'N. & 87°24 / E.) for about 12 
miles almost parallel to the 87°25'E. meridian and then takes a 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


11 


sharp turn to the north-west enclosing the Bakreswar Nala and 
running almost parallel to it along its right bank. With Rajnagar 
at the centre, river valleys radiate in all directions except the 
north-west where the high plateau provided a natural fortification. 

To the north of 24°0'N. the east flowing Nunbil Nala (the Singra 
river according to D.L.R.’s map) meets the north flowing 
Siddheswari Nala at 320 feet which flows due east through the 
Dumka subdivision to debouch into the Mayurakshi at a height 
of 244 feet. It is also the debouching point of the Phatik Nala, 
a small stream of about 9 miles length flowing north-east. The 
highest point in the district is reached in the Nunbil-Siddheswari 
interfluve where the summit of a hillock measures 518 feet. The 
Kandar Nala (downstream the Phuskani Nala) flowing past Raj- 
fiagar is an east flowing tributary of the Mayurakshi. As has 
already been described the Bakreswar Valley provided a route 
towards south-southeast. 

The district is well drained by a number of rivers and plateau River System 

streams running in nearly every case from west to east with a r F sources 

slight southeasterly inclination in the Suri subdivision and a north¬ 
easterly inclination in the eastern half of the Rampurhat subdivi¬ 
sion. Only two are rivers of any magnitude, viz. the Mayurakshi Mam f, ,vcrs . 

, , \ , , , , . and tributaries 

and the Ajay. The latter marks the southern boundary; 
and the Mayurakshi runs through Birbhum from west to east. 

Both river valleys are of considerable size when they enter the 
district, their width varying according to the configuration of the 
country, from two hundred yards to half a mile. The cross section 
of the valley floors is broader upstream, i.e. to the west. In 
the dry weather their beds are broad expanses of sand with 
narrow streams trickling down in meanders, but during the rainy 
season the water channels grow much broader and deeper, and 
after a heavy downpour in a few hours, occasionally overflow 
their banks downstream (where valley floors are narrow) and 
inundate the surrounding country. O’Malley wrote, “With the 
exception of these two waterways (i.e. the Ajay and the Mayur¬ 
akshi) none of the rivers are used for navigation. Between the 
bigger rivers are innumerable drainage channels known by the 
generic name of Kandar, of which the Chilla and the'Ghoramara 
are of an appreciable size. In the western part of the district the 
rivers, being fenced in by high ridges or well-marked undulations 
of stiff laterite, keep fairly well within their permanent Channels. 

Further eastward, however, where the country is level and the 
soil friable, exemplifications of the usual meandering of Indian 
rivers are to be found.” 1 

The Ajay rising in the Chotanagpur hills of Bihar first touches 

i L. S. S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1910. 

P- 3 - 


The Ajay 



12 


BIRBHUM 


The 

Mayurakshi 


the district at its south-west corner, and follows a winding course 
in an easterly direction, forming the district boundary. After 
receiving the Kunur Nala from the right bank and taking a north¬ 
easterly bend north of Mangalkot (in Burdwan) at the extreme 
southeastern angle of Birbhum, it enters Burdwan eventually 
falling into the Bhagirathi near Katwa. The total length of the 
Ajay in this district is about 76 miles (121.6 km.). In this portion 
of its course it is navigable for small boats during the rains. The 
river has a very broad channel in its upper course. In Khayrasol 
and Dubrajpur police stations the width at places is almost a mile. 
There are some five miles of left bank embankments in Khayrasol 
thana. From the confluence with the Hingla at an altitude of 
230 feet in the Dubrajpur police station the Ajay turns south¬ 
easterly till it receives Fumuni Nala from the right at an altitude 
of 184 feet just below Jaydeb Kenduli. From this point the river 
valley becomes narrow and from 87°30' E. longitude the flow 
becomes easterly again. To the east of Eastern Railway Loop 
Line the valley floor becomes narrow and the banks display 
features of gully erosion. A Kana Nala and a Kandar Khal with 
an intricate network are part of the Ajay system in Bolpur and 
Nanur thanas. The Ajay leaves the district at an altitude of 
75 feet. Thus the total fall in the long profile of the valley is 
about 225 feet in 76 miles; but the gradient is not an even one. 
Its floods sometimes destroy the villages and crops on its left 
bank, along which are some embankments with a total length of 
about 9 miles in the Bolpur and Nanur thanas. Its right bank 
embankments in the Burdwan district are however far more 
extensive. 

The Mayurakshi enters Birbhum from the Santal Parganas 
a little north of the village of Haripur Jambandi (23“59' N. & 
87°27'E.) at a height of 228 feet and flows through the centre of 
the district from west to east, passing two miles north of Suri and 
forming the southern boundary of the Rampurhat subdivision. 
It leaves the district at an altitude of 99 feet, a little east of Ganutia 
(87°50' E. & 23 c 52'30" N.) and joins the Dwaraka, which is itself 
a tributary of the Bhagirathi. As only descending boats can ply 
on this river, small canoes are built on its banks and floated down 
during freshets, but are unable to return owing to the velocity of 
the current. The Mayurakshi is perennial only in its downstream 
course and its fall is about 129 feet in 30 miles within this district. 

It is interesting to note that all the distributaries of the Mayur¬ 
akshi take off from the left bank. The river is also called the 
Morakhi or Mor, a corruption of Mayurakshi ‘the peacock-eyed’, 
i.e. having water as lustrous as the eye of a peacock. In the 
eastern portion of its course it gives off distributaries known as the 
Kana and the Manikarnika Nalas. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


13 


The Hingla coming from the Santal Parganas enters Khayrasol 
thana some eight miles north of the Ajay, and gradually approach¬ 
ing that river, unites with it at Chapla in Dubrajpur thana, after a 
course in Birbhum of about fifteen miles. The greater part of this 
tract is drained by series of small streams, which rise within the 
district, and, gradually converging from the numerous vales into 
which the country is here longitudinally divided, fall into the 
Bakreswar. The latter rises from south of Rajnagar a few miles 
north-west of the hot springs of the same name (87°22'30"E. & 
23°52°50 / N.) some ten miles west of Suri, and after following a 
zigzag course eastwards, and receiving one by one the waters of 
almost all the rivulets of south Birbhum, joins the Mayurakshi as 
the Koiya Nala a few miles beyond the eastern boundary of the 
district. The Bakreswar and the Kopai meet at a height of 92 
feet below Labhpur. The first eight miles of the long profile of 
the combined stream, the Koiya Nala, has some gradient but 
becomes absolutely flat just before it enters the Kandi subdivision 
forming large swamps. 

The Brahmani is a river of the same type as the Mayurakshi 
but on a smaller scale. It enters the district at Narayanpur 
(24°15 / 20 // N. & 87°38'25" E.), bisects the Rampurhat subdivision, 
and passing under the railway two miles south of Nalhati falls 
into the Dwaraka in the Murshidabad district. Numerous partially 
ruined settlements such as Kaitha (87°55'E. & 24°17'30" N.), 
Bujang (87°55'E. & 24°15 , N.), Bhadrapur (87°57 / E. & 

24° 15'30" N.), Lohapur (87°58 / 20 // E. & 24°17'30" N.), Bara 
(24°19'N. & 87°58'E.) etc. form an important feature of the 
cultural landscape of the Brahmani basin. On the right bank of 
the Brahmani stands the now deserted villages Narayanpur 
(24° 14' N. & 87°42'E.) and Balia (24°13 / N. & 87°43'E.) which 
were once famous for iron smelting. The Tripita Nala flows east 
from the Santal Parganas, enters the district at 87°44' E. & 
24°17 , 30" N., becomes perennial east of 87°45' E. and joins the 
Brahmani as left bank tributary at 87°50 / E. & 24°17'N. At 
about 87°52'E. & 87°55 / E. and about the same latitude, viz. 
24°17T5 // N. there are two abandoned channels of the Brahmani 
flowing south-east. The present channel also takes a southerly 
bend from 24° 15' N. and 87°57' E. Banks of all the three courses 
have been heavily eroded. The Gamri Nala, a perennial stream, 
rises from within the district (87°50' E. & 24°2rN.) and flows due 
east in a meandering channel and finally describes the district 
boundary with the Lalbagh subdivision of Murshidabad district. 
The Eastern Railway Azimganj Branch Line is on the Gamri- 
Brahmani interfluve. The Bansloi in the north of the Rampurhat 
subdivision and the more sluggish Pagla between the Bansloi apd 
the Brahmani, are smaller rivers of the same kind as the Mayur- 


The Hingla 


I lie Bakres¬ 
war & the 
Kopai 


The Brahmani 


The Tripita 


The Gamri 


The Bansloi & 
the Pagla 



14 


B1RBHUM 


Tiie Dwaraka 


The Bamini 


The Kulia 


Tlie Giiarmora 
& the Chila 

The Ghagar 


River control 
and changes 
effected in 
the configu¬ 
ration of the 
country by the 
construction of 
canals etc. 


akshi and follow courses described earlier. The Bansloi, coming 
from the west as a broad and perennial stream flows two miles 
north of Murarai police station, becomes non-perennial and sand 
choked after taking a northeasterly course just after crossing the 
Eastern Railway Line and falls into the Bhagirathi opposite Jangi- 
pur in the district of Murshidabad. It is a plateau stream which 
is apt to overflow after heavy rainfall. 

The Dwaraka is a narrow non-perennial stream of considerable 
length, about 44 miles within the district. Originating from the 
Ramgarh hills of the Chotanagpur plateau the Dwaraka describes 
the district boundary from 87°30 / E. & 24°7'N. for a few miles 
flowing south-east. In its southeasterly course the Dwaraka 
receives numerous small tributaries of which mention might be 
made of the Bamini Nala, a right bank tributary meeting the 
Dwaraka at 157 feet. All of them are non-perennial having dry 
sandy beds and quite a few have been dammed to form reservoirs. 
Settlements are sparse but cluster round such reservoirs and tanks. 
From 24° N. & 87°38'E. where it receives the Kulia Nala at 125 
feet from the right bank, the Dwaraka swings east and then 
north-east describing almost a circle. In its northeasterly course 
the Dwaraka receives many tributaries on its right bank. The 
Gharmora and the Chila Nalas originating from the eastern face 
of the Ramgarh hills flow due east, the latter describing the district 
boundary for a considerable length. The Ghagar, a left bank 
tributary of the Gharmora, forms the subdivisional boundary for 
a few miles. The Gharmora and the Chila combine at about 
24°6T5" N. & 87°46'E. and the united stream debouches into the 
Dwaraka at about 87°48' E. & 24°7'30" N. From this point 2 
miles downstream the Dwaraka receives another left bank tribu¬ 
tary (anonymous) flowing south-east which makes the master 
stream to swing to the east (from 87°50' E.). In its easterly course 
the Dwaraka receives a few tributaries from the south. Permanent 
settlements fringe the banks of the main northeasterly flowing 
Dwaraka but avoid the immediate vicinity of the banks as soon 
as the river turns eastwards. The Dwaraka unites with the 
Brahmani and debouches in the Bhagirathi in Murshidabad 
district. 

The chief characteristic of all the streams described above is 
that they flow with tremendous velocity in the monsoon months, 
carrying substantial volume of sand and silt, but become almost 
dry in winter. During the monsoon they often overflow their 
banks, damage crops and cause heavy soil-erosion. Most of their 
water runs to waste. To make a better utilisation of water for 
irrigation and generation of hydel power, to check soil erosion and 
ravages of flood, river valley projects have been drawn up. Of 
these projects the Mayurakshi Valley Project is the principal one. 



GENERAL Ac PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


15 


The project as executed consists of (1) a reservoir dam across 
the Mayurakshi at Masanjore on the Archaean terrain of the 
Dumka hills, (2) a main barrage across the same river at Tilpara 
about 25 miles below Masanjore and (3) two canal systems — the 
‘North Bank Canals’ and the ‘South Bank Canals’. The mean 
elevation above sea level of the Mayurakshi river banks at the 
dam site is 300 feet. The height of the dam is 123 feet above 
the river bed and 155 feet above the deepest foundation. It is 
2,010 feet long from hill to hill of which 740 feet on the right side 
forms the spillway for the surplus high flood discharge. Though 
within Bihar, the dam and the reservoir are owned by West Bengal. 
The reservoir commanding a catchment area of 718 square miles 
where the mean annual precipitation is 57 inches, is about 15 miles 
long and 7 miles wide with a peripheral length of about 130 miles. 
The gross reservoir capacity is 5,00,000 acre feet. The dead 
storage area is 3,100 acres which stores 55,000 ac. ft. The gross 
command area of the project is 1,240 square miles in West Bengal 
of which 853 square miles is in Birbhum and the rest in 
Murshidabad and Burdwan.* 

Some 25 miles below Masanjore Dam (also called the Canada 
Dam) and at a distance of a couple of miles from Suri is the main 
barrage of the project, the Tilpara barrage, from which two main 
canals take off on either bank of the river. Tilpara is just below 
the 200 feet contour line and the barrage heads-up water up to a 
height of 20 feet creating a 5 mile long pool along the river bed. 
Thus it is beyond the capacity of Mayurakshi canals to serve 
areas the elevations of which are higher than 220 feet. The 
catchment area of the barrage is 1,239 sq. miles. The barrage is 
1,013 ft. long and has 15 bays of 60 feet each. Of these, 4 bays, 
on each side constitute the undersluices and the central 7 bays 
form the weir. The level of the crest of the undersluice bays is 
3 ft. lower than the weir crest level, the depths of the undersluice 
and weir gates are 16'6" and 13'6" respectively. The maximum 
discharging capacity of the gates is 2,91,000 cusecs. 

There are two head regulators for the two canals on either side, 
each having 20 feet wide vents controlled by counter balanced 
gates. Each canal has the capacity to receive 3,500 cusecs or 
13 lakh gallons of water per minute. The main canals have been 
taken over a number of cross drainage works with barrages across 
the Kopai, the Dwaraka and the Brahmani and a weir across the 
Bakreswar. The Dwaraka barrage at Deocha (87°35'E. & 24°2' 
30" N.) commanding a catchment area of 117.0 sq. miles, has a 
length of 274 feet with 6 bays and 2 undersluices of 30 feet each 
and a head regulator the maximum discharge capacity of which 
is 1,695 cusecs. 

* Source: Data Book of Mayurakshi Reservoir Project, ig66 ( unpublished ). 



BIRBHUM 


Floods 


16 


The Brahmani barrage at Baidara (24°15'N. & 87°44'30"E.) 
commanding a catchment area of 259 square miles, has a length 
of 415 feet with 10 bays and 2 undersluices of 30 feet each and 
a head regulator, the maximum discharge capacity of which is 
825 cusecs. 

At Kadisala (87°27T5"E. & 23°47'30 ,/ N.), the old weir across 
the Bakreswar constructed in 1928-30, have been remodelled to 
suit the present requirements. This weir commanding a catchment 
area of 48.8 square miles, has a total length of 300 feet of which 
the weir itself is 223 feet. It has two undersluices of 24 feet 
each and one head regulator the maximum discharge capacity of 
which is 2,410 cusecs. 

The Kopai barrage at Kultore (87°30'45 // E. & 23°0'40"N.) 
commanding a catchment area of 82 square miles, has a length 
pf 216 feet with 4 bays and two undersluices of 30 feet each and 
a head regulator the maximum discharge capacity of which is 
1,940 cusecs. 

In addition to the above barrages, numerous cross drainage 
structures big and small, such as aqueducts, syphons, super¬ 
passages, inlet-cum-escapes, bridges, falls and regulators ’ have 
also been built in the branch canals and distributaries. Total 
number of such structures completed up to the end of 1965 was 
nearly 1,500 out of a total number of 1,880 structures approximately. 

The project envisaged 224.31 miles of main and branch canals 
apd 783 miles of distributaries. It had been estimated that 1,600 
acres of land would be permanently required for this canal net¬ 
work and that it would involve about 110 crores cubic feet of 
excavation work. The North Bank Main Canal runs athwart 
the general slope towards north-northeast. The South Bank 
Main Canal also runs athwart the general gradient towards south 
till it reaches Ilambazar thana from where it turns east. All 
the branch canals take off at right angles from the main canal 
and flow east but their distributaries flow either north-east or 
south-east describing a dendritic pattern. The western parts (of 
the main canal) being higher in elevation, do not receive any 
irrigation water. Rajnagar, Khayrasol, western parts of Dubrajpur, 
Ilambazar, Suri, Mahammad Bazar, Rampurhat, Nalhati and 
Murarai police stations are thus outside the Mayurakshi irriga¬ 
tion scheme. From a distance the main canal appears as a 
high levee. The Bakreswar weir and all the barrages along 
the main canal system are just below 200 feet. The map will 
explain the alignment of the canal network vis-a-vis the topo¬ 
graphy and the river system. 

Widespread floods are uncommon, but excessive rain sometimes 
causes serious inundations from the rivers Ajay, Hingla, 
Mayurakshi, Bansloi and Brahmani. Certain stretches of the 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


17 


river Ajay are known to be subject to periodic floods. These 
stretches have been embanked partly by the Government and 
partly by the erstwhile zamindars. The stretches embanked have 
already been described and it appears from the embankments 
that the Burdwan district is more susceptible to floods from 
the Ajay than the Birbhum district. Sometimes these embank¬ 
ments breach and vast tracts are overrun by flood waters that 
flow through numerous openings in the approach embankments 
to the railway bridges over the river Ajay and join the main 
stream lower down. The levels attained during the 1956 floods 
(26th September) which is the highest on record may be recounted 
here. At Pandaveswar on the Andal-Sainthia railway line the 
Ajay rose 7.6 feet and came back to normal in three days. At 
Dihi Betial, opposite Jaydeb Kenduli and 12 miles downstream 
from Pandaveswar, the rise was 10.2 feet and took four days 
to come back to normal. At Satkahania, 18 miles from Panda¬ 
veswar and 2 miles upstream of the road bridge connecting 
Panagar with Ilambazar, the rise was as steep as 17.55 feet and 
came back to normal in four days. This rise was probably due 
to the constriction of flow caused by the approach road embank¬ 
ment which was breached the following day (27th September). 
At Maliara, about 27 miles from Pandaveswar, the river rose 
10.1 feet and came back to normal in four days. At Budra, 
31 miles from Pandaveswar, the river rose only 6.6 feet but came 
back to normal in six days. It was estimated that the maximum 
discharge that might have passed in this reach of the river during 
the 1956 flood was of the order of 3,00,000 cusecs. 1 

In the immediate vicinity of Katwa (in Burdwan district), where 
the river Bhagirathi has got a maximum carrying capacity of 
1,27,000 cusecs, the abrupt inflow of 3,00,000 cusecs brought forth 
a catastrophic situation not only for Burdwan, Nadia and 
Murshidabad but also for Birbhum. The Bhagirathi is the 
ultimate outfall of the Brahmani, the Dwaraka, the Kana 
Mayurakshi, the Mayurakshi, the Koiya and large marshes called 
bit, such as, Balur, Patan, Gorkama, Talkar and Hijol, which 
receive the spill water of all these rivers. When the Bhagirathi 
is in flood which is further aggravated by the backing up effect 
of the Ajay flood water, the waters brought down by the 
Mayurakshi-Dwaraka system of rivers cannot find their way out 


1 Report on the floods of Septcmber-Octobcr 1956 in Central, Western 
and Southern Districts of West Bengal, Government of West Bengal. 
Aliporc, July 1957. pp. 2«-sg. 



18 


B1RBHUM 


and head up in the Hijol and other bils. Such synchronization 
is not infrequent. The situation has further worsened due to 
reclamation of these flood detention reservoirs by natural process 
of silt deposition and also by erratic Gher Bundh for cultivation. 
The consequence is a greater depth of flooding, longer period of 
submergence and increased pressure on bridges and embank¬ 
ments. Thusv the major floods which haunt Birbhum have 
their roots in the neighbouring districts which suffer from 
drainage problems. 

Roads and settlements avoid the immediate vicinity of the 
river banks of the north-northeast flowing Pagla and Bansloi in 
Murarai and Nalhati thanas and that of the east flowing Koiya 
in Labhpur and Nanur thanas due to floods. At Ganutia, east 
of Sainthia, the Mayurakshi has before now given considerable 
trouble during floods by altering its course, cutting into the 
roads and threatening to sweep away the celebrated old silk 
filature at that place. Like Mayurakshi, the Brahmani also 
displays two channels (referred to earlier) which were abandoned 
during high floods leaving behind ruins of many flourishing 
villages. The northeasterly flowing Dwaraka swings to the east 
from 87 C 50'E. and from this point the Dwaraka frequently 
changes her course and inundates large tracts within Birbhum 
as well as Murshidabad. The area within Birbhum is full of 
ox-bow lakes and the banks are without any road or settlement. 
The Gambhira which meets the Brahmani at about 24°6'N. & 
88°4 / 40"E. in Murshidabad district is also flood-prone, though 
not so much as in Murshidabad district. The banks of 
Mayurakshi distributaries show a more dense settlement than 
that of the present Mayurakshi channel. This is probably due 
to the unstable regimen of the present channel. 

The question has been repeatedly asked since the disastrous 
floods of 1956, whether the operational programme of the 
Masanjore Reservoir could be so modified as to giv«? partial flood 
relief to the Kandi subdivision and its adjoining police stations 
in Birbhum district. All the rivers — Kopai, Bakreswar, 
Mayurakshi, Dwaraka and Brahmani — together with their 
numerous tributaries that drain into the Hijol Bil and other bils 
of Kandi subdivision carry the run-off from 4,500 square miles. 
Out of this the Masanjore Dam controls only 718 square miles. 
It is obvious that even if all the run-off from the catchment of 
Masanjore Dam could be held back at the reservoir, the effect 
would be negligible. Probably, this is the reason why there is 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


19 


no provision of flood control in the Mayurakshi Project. In the 
Mayurakshi canal system no separate drainage channels have 
been provided nor has the improvement of the existing drainage 
channels been found necessary. Wherever the irrigation channels 
have crossed the existing drainage channels, cross-drainage works 
have been provided. The West Bengal Enquiry Committee in its 
report on the floods of September-October 1956 observed that 
among other things the foremost local factor responsible for flood 
was the deterioration of the rivers Koiya, Ajay, Mayurakshi, Kana 
Mayurakshi and Dvvaraka due to deposition of sand brought 
down from the upper catchment area by soil erosion. The 
Committee emphasized the importance of proper attention to 
these catchment areas. It recommended a dam on the Ajay as a 
detention reservoir, an outfall from the Mayurakshi river in the 
Bhagirathi and improvement of the Bhagirathi channel itself. A 
scheme to control the Hingla river is expected to materialize 
very soon. 1 > 

In the northernmost part of Birbhum there are several swamps, L a k es and 
most important of them being Pahankuri (87°55'45"E. & tank s 
24°32'40"N.), Chatankura (87°53'40"E. & 24°33'45"N.) and 
Rajchandrapur Bil (87°53'E. & 24°31'N.). On the Dwaraka- 
Mayurakshi interfluve and extreme south-west of Mayureswar 
thana, two large water bodies occupy a low lying depression. 

These lakes (23°59 / N. & 87°44'E.) with several islands appear 
like a honeycomb on the map. Several marshes are found on 
the right bank of the Mayurakshi, most important of them being 
at 87°34'45"E., 87°36'E., 87°42 / E and 87°44'E. All of them 
are connected with the master stream by spill channels. There 
is a large swamp to the east of Andal-Sainthia Chord line one 
and a half miles above the rail bridge over the Ajay. It is fed 
by spill channels of both the Hingla and the Ajay. Many derelict 
channels forming linear or ox-bow lakes are found on the right 
bank of the Dwaraka to the east of 87°50'E. The largest marsh, 
however, has been formed by a comparatively smaller stream, 
namely the Koiya on the Birbhum-Murshidabad border. During 
the monsoon a large part of this low lying area (drained by the 
Koiya and the Kandar) remains submerged under water. 

Birbhum is full of tanks—in fact, in most parts of Birbhum, 
settlements are nucleated around tanks. Tank irrigation 
predominates. “Several of these tanks are old and of large size, 

1 Report on the floods of September-October, 1956 in Central, Western 
• and Southern districts of West Bengal. New Alipore, 1957. pp. 43 & 47. 



20 


BIRBHUM 


Geology 


Palacogeography 


e.g., Dantindighi one mile from Dubrajpur, the Rajpur Sair 
four miles south of Suri, and the Lambodarpur Sair a mile 
northwest of the same place. Smaller tanks are very numerous, 
and it has been estimated that each village has at least five on 
the average. In the village of Sankarpur, for instance, there are 
111 tanks occupying 167 acres, and 46 are so close to each other, 
that mere footpaths on the top of the banks separate one from 
another. Owing, however, to the neglect of the Zamindars (many 
of them absentees) and the apathy of the population at large, 
many of the irrigation tanks have silted up and become useless; 
some of them have become so dry that they are let out for 
cultivation.” 1 

Near the Phullara temple at Labhpur is a large dried up lake 
named Daldali, about 300 bighas in area. It is so calldd (from 
dal-dal, a quaking quagmire) because if one stands in any part 
of it a large portion oscillates. 

At the old fort of Bhimgarh six miles south-west of Dubrajpi^ 
is a tank named Sona Chal Dighi, which is said to hav^js^faed 
gold and hence the name. 


The geological succession found in the district is as given 
below: 


Recent 

Tertiary (Miocene) 


Middle to Upper Jurassic : 
Upper Gondwanas : 
(Middle Trias-Jurassic) 


Alluvium. 

Laterite & Lateritic gravels with 
fossil wood. 

Clay beds. 

Ferruginous & falspathic sandstone 
& clay-beds. 

Rajmahal Traps. 

Grit, ironstone, sandstone & shales 
with beds of fire-clay & coal seams. 


UNCONFORMITY 


Archaeans : Granite (porphyritic & graphic) 

gneisses & schists with pegmatite 
and quarty veins. 

Archaeqns are the oldest rock formations in this district, its 
granitoid and schistose rocks having crystallised at least 900 


1 I..S.S. O’Malley — op. cif. p. 34. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


21 • 


million years ago. These are a continuation to the east of the 
Peninsular Archaeans of the Chotanagpur Plateau. These regions 
were subjected to great diastrophic movements and erosion 
through a considerable period. On the deeply denuded edges of 
the contorted Archaeans, the sedimentary formations of Purana 
age were deposited. Undoubtedly no Purana^ rocks, however, 
have yet been reported from the Birbhum district. The zone of 
unconformity between the Archaeans and the Lower Gandwanas is 
the evidence of large-scale crustal movements and deformation 
that brought about revolutionary changes in the physiography at 
the end of the Purana period. Consequent to the readjustment 
that followed these crustal movements, large areas of India, 
hitherto landmasses, were brought under sedimentation. From 
this efll the Himalayan geosynclinal trough which was then 
forming at the floor of the Tethys or the ancient Mediterranean 
Ocean was filled with considerable thickness of marine sediments 
«d&nging in age from Permian to Eocene. These post Purana- 
Up N p%4^arboniferous crustal movements manifested themselves 
into block type of earth movements in the Peninsular India and 
were responsible for development of tensional cracks and sub¬ 
sidence of large linear tracts between more or less vertical fissures 
' culminating into basin shaped depressions or troughs on the 
ancient Archaeans. These events have important bearings on 
the geological structure of Birbhum district. The geological 
structure of the Tangsuli basin (Lower Gondwanas) and the fault 
zone along quartz ridges (Upper Gondwanas) owe their origin 
to these events. The hot springs of Bakreswar, probably lying 
along^a fissure zone in the granite-gneiss, are also due to these 
events. 

Thus, the commencement of the Aryan era was followed by a 
cycle of fluviatile sedimentation resulting in the subsidence of the 
loaded basins. This process which later continued pari passu 
beginning with the Upper C arboniferous of the Palaeozoic till the 
•end of the Mesozoic period (with certain stratigraphic breaks or 
unconformities as in the middle Trias) resulted in the formation 
of tlie most characteristic system of thick fluviatile or lacustrine 
formation of shales and sand-stones with intercalations of valuable 
coal seams belonging to the Gondwana system. Deposition of 
these immense formations with their valuable coal seams in the 
gradually sinking basins are responsible for their preservation 
not only from denudation but also from the effects of folding and 
crashing. 



22 


BIRBHUM 


This Gondwana period witnessed a cycle of climatic changes 
as evinced from the nature of its rock formations and their fossil 
content. The presence of glacial boulder beds in the same horizon 
in widely separated areas at the base of the Gondwanas suggests 
the prevalence of glacial epoch at the commencement of the Upper 
Carboniferous period. The warm climate which followed during 
the Damuda period is marked by the preponderance of coal seams 
pointing to the abundance of terrestrial vegetation at that .time. 

During the Upper Gondwana period, the Gondwana land was 
subjected to marked vulcanicity, which manifested itself into out¬ 
pouring of Rajmahal lava flows and intrusions of numerous sills 
and dykes of basic and ultrabasic rocks. These intrusives, 
abundant in the Lower Gondwana rocks, have often damaged the 
coal seams near their contacts—the coal seams thus burnt being 
known as Jhama. Exposures of Rajmahal traps of early 
Cretaceous age occur along the western fringe of the district in 
Rampurhat and Nalhati thanas. ^ 

Approximately to the east of the Andal-Sainthia Chord the 
Eastern Railway Loop lines the Archaeans and the Rajmahal 
traps disappear below a blanket of Alluvium. Geology of this 
portion of the district, which lie concealed below a capping of 
Holocene alluvium, was completely unknown until recently, till 
extensive subsurface investigations were undertaken, mainly in 
connection with exploration for petroleum. An exploratory bore¬ 
hole was drilled to a depth of over 1,500 metres at Bolpur under 
the Indo-Stanvac Project, but no oil worth commercial exploita¬ 
tion was found. At this borehole below a 65 metres thick 
sequence of gravel, sand and laterite interbeds, sedimentary ^ocks 
of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, such as sandstone, conglomeratic „ 
sandstone, clay shales of various colours and sandy limestone 
were found; these rocks indicate local alterations of deltaic, 
estuarine and shallow marine conditions during their Reposition. 
At a depth of 1,193 metres below the sea level these sedimentary 
rocks are underlain with an unconformity by basaltic rocks presum¬ 
ably of the same age (Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous) as the 
Rajmahal Volcanics. The borehole penetrated 287 metres into 
the basalt before it was abandoned. 1 

A number of buried domal structures of varying dimensions 
have been detected in the Archaean Shield below the alluvium 
up to a zone passing through Midnapur, West Galsi and Jangipur 

1 B. Ray 4 *—Census 1961, West Bengal, District Census Handbook-: 

Birbhum. Calcutta, 1966. pp. 9-10. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


23 


areas. Some of these structures are possibly only erosional 
features on the Archaean basement, while others might be related 
to basic volcanic activity and might even represent the fossil vents 
of eruption. This explains the unconformity at the base of the 
sedimentaries referred to above. What is more significant is that 
these buried basement ridges in the western fringe $1 the Bengal 
basin presumably kept the basin of Gondwana sedimentation 
isolated from the main Bengal basin through most of the Tertiary 
times. Presence of the Durgapur beds possibly estuarine counter¬ 
part of some shallow marine. Middle Miocene formations in the 
West Bengal subsurface near Raniganj, suggest extensive marine 
transgression, across the basement ridges in the late Tertiary. 1 2 

.Thus, the lower Cretaceous vulcanicity, about 136 million years 
back, marked the initiation of a prolonged period of Mesozoic— 
Tertiary basin movements in the Bengal delta. Synthesis of the 
geological observations in the surface and subsurface of Bengal 
witfMhe recorded Geology of Assam, helps in the reconstruction 
of the sfc!£*s of evolution of the Bengal basin from an epicon¬ 
tinental sea. The Bengal basin including the coastal parts of 
Orissa and Sunderbans and excluding East Pakistan, is reported 
to cover an area of about 77,700 sq. km. (30,000 sq. miles). It 
i$ bounded on the north by a buried ridge running east-west 
between the Rajmahal and the Meghalaya. The drilling data of 
the Exploratory Tube-wells Organisation from Mandilpur (24°04 / N. 
& 88°09'E.) in the Malda district and from Buniadpur (25°23'N. 
& 88°24'E.) in the West Dinajpur district revealed the presence 
of granite gneiss at respective depths of 260.6 m. and 307.2 m.- 
The corfSguration of this hidden basement complex of the 
Meghalaya-Rajmahal gap is probably of the nature of a saddle— 
concave along th« east-west axis and convex along the northwest- 
southeast axis. 3 

This mean^ that the basement complex in Birbhum slopes east 
and south-east. Core samples from the basalt covering this base¬ 
ment complex indicate that these lava flows took place in con¬ 
tinental environment concurrent with the Rajmahal or the Sylhet 
traps. This was followed, during the late Cretaceous, by a slow 
subsidence of the shelf area of the Bengal basin in effect of the 


1 S. Sengupta — ‘Geology of Southwestern Bengal’ in West Bengal. 
Calcutta, 1970. p. x. 

2 A. Hunday & S. Banerjee — Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 
f Vol. 97. Delhi, 1967. p. 46. 

3 ^atfeshchandra Chakraborty — ‘Some considerations on the cwdution 
of physiography of Bengal’ in West Bengal. Calcutta, 1970. p. 18. 



24 


BIRBHbM 


Naga-Lushai orogen and in response with the normal plasticity 
of the sub-crustal formations. The Himalayan orogen had started 
long before the Naga-Lushai orogen and the two cycles operated 
independent of each other. 

In other words, in terms of the tectonic frame*"of Bengal the 
Meghalaya-Ra^imahal saddle beneath Birbhum should have rela¬ 
tively thin overlay of recent sedimentaries and should have formed 
a land surface for a long time during which the tectonic sub¬ 
sidence of the basement complex of Bengal was taking place. 
There is, however, no geophysical evidence to help us to ascertain 
the exact date until which the Meghalaya-Rajmahal saddle 
remained a part of the ancient land surface of Bengal. Nevertheless 
we may note that along this saddle we have a peculiar land for¬ 
mation called the lateritic Rarh which is undulated in 9 'character, 
dissected in appearance and formed of ferralitic materials. The 
ferralitic contents suggest a long and probably continuous exposure 
to subaerial conditions of this landmass, which has thus acquired 
a distinctive character in contrast to the more recen^^fluviums 
flanking it. 1 The Rarh lateritic terraces separate the ancient 
Archaean formations from the alluviums all along the eastern 
margin of the Chotanagpur plateau. 

The origin of these laterites is somewhat controversial. They 
range in age from Cretaceous to Pleistocene and the process of 
laterization on the various rock exposures is continuing in optimum 
conditions even in recent times. Many of the laterite occur¬ 
rences show Tertiary formations below. As such, these laterites 
can be considered to be younger in age than the Tertiary. It is 
not unlikely that the laterite occurrences which are thitherto 
grouped under the Older Alluvium in many places, may also 
have concealed the Tertiary formations below, o Very strangely 
some of the older laterite terrain in Birbhum appear like sea-cliffs 
from a distance. These could probably have formed in situ , as is 
happening in many tropical lands in recent times. Like all 
primary laterites (in the sense that they can be traced back to 
their parent igneous rocks) they occur as hard consolidated blocks. 
But the presence of a subsurface layer of Kaolinitic clay bed 
tinged from above by ferrous colloids, an admixture of rounded 
pebbles of heterogenous rocks with the laterites and a general 
absence of normal lateritic horizons indicate that more probably 
these were residual weathering products of the nearly 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


25 


peneplained Archaean massif and they were carried by rivers into 
shallow coastal seas. It logically follows that the lateritic Rarh 
tract of West Bengal and Birbhum in particular (being situated at 
the head of the embayment), was the first deltaic landforms 
developed iff the mio-geosyncline of the Naga-Lushai orogen. 

The extent of submergence during the Cretaceous may be 
visualized from the fact that a bold embayed coast, now known 
as the Damodar Embayment reached as far north as the present 
Jalangi' Debagram area of the Nadia district. The thickness of 
the Cretaceous formation sharply expresses the configuration of 
the Damodar Embayment. Sedimentaries of the Upper Cretaceous 
system have a general northeast-southwest strike. The continental 
deposits on the west become progressively more marine towards 
south-ea?L The shallowest subsea depth of the Cretaceous forma¬ 
tion was registered at Bolpur and the deepest somewhere around 
Memari. 1 

•Some 65 to 58 million years from now, Paleocene and Lower 
Eocenj^pochs witnessed continental, transitional and shallow 
marine deposition of sand. This formation contains petroleum 
and gas, which however, could not be located in Birbhum. The 
pattern of deposition was, mutatis mutandis, similar to that in 
the Upper Cretaceous times, with a low regional dip of about 2° 
to the south-east and an indication that the shoreline of the 
epicontinental sea or the Embayment migrated further to the 
south. 

Marine transgression during Middle Eocene times shifted all 
bands of deposition westward from the shoreline of the Paleocene 
and L^ver Eocene times. The sand percentage contours (nil at 
Galsi and a recorded maximum of 69% sand at Bolpur) show the 
same regional irend and sharply express the Damodar Embay¬ 
ment in the underlying formation. As sand decreases, lime 
increases basin-ward (2% carbonate at Bolpur increases to 90% 
at Jalangi). Upper Eocene transgressions moved the shoreline 
of the epicontinental sea further west so that the entire Hooghly 
district and parts of Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum are under¬ 
lain tfy shallow marine deposits, chiefly limestone. It appears 
that the limestone cap in Birbhum was not sufficient to preserve 
the petroleum and gas of the underlying formations. 

Oligocene regression, which started about 36 million years ago, 

1 N. N. Sen — ‘Palaeogeography of the Calcutta Metropolitan District and 
Neighbourhood’ in Geographical Review of India, Vol. XXX, No. s. 
• Calcutta, June 1968. pp. 26-27. 



26 


BIRBHUM 


moved the shoreline downdip to such an extent that only the 
southeastern portions of the Calcutta Metropolitan District are 
underlain by marine deposits while the rest of it consists of 
transitional and shallow marine deposits. The bed is only 164 
feet thick at Bolpur on the West and increases to *"568 feet at 
Memari. The Upper boundary of the Oligocene beds is marked 
by an unconformity. 1 

During the Miocene transgressive phase, only some 25 to 13 
million years back, the sea moved the furthest west enclosing the 
eastern end of the Raniganj area. 2 The prevailing rocks are 
mixtures of sand and clay or alternating laminae of the same. 
During this time, practically the whole of Bengal and Assam was 
subjected to major tectonic movements. Movements on the major 
northeast-southwest tending fault zones of the Bengal basin caused 
rapid sinking of the deeper shelf and the geosynclinal parts of the 
basin, resulting in marine transgression in the eastern part of the 
stable Bengal shelf. During late Miocene and early Pliocene', 
most of Assam underwent a phase of intense tectonic tivity. 
Movements on the Dauki fault and northwesterly movements on 
the Naga thrusts were initiated. This activity was accentuated 
during the Pliocene, when most of the mobile belt was uplifted, 
and widespread regression of the sea followed. 3 

Marine regression is evident in Pliocene (started about 13 million 
years ago) and older Pleistocene times (only one million years 
old) from the continental and transitional sediments covering 
entire Birbhum. The basal Pliocene beds associated with the 
Miocene-Pliocene unconformity have yielded some genuine shows 
of hydrocarbons in the southern parts of the Bengal basin^which 
was in a shallow marine environment. In contrast, the Himalayan - 
foothills and northern Bengal was under a glacio-duvial geomor- 
phic cycle. The boundary between these two units is the lateritic 
or ferallitic terrain which passes through Birbhum, Barind, 
Madhupurgarh, Bhowalgarh and Lalmai hills. 4 

Possibly only very late in the Pleistocene, with the uplift of the 


1 It is interesting to compare this structure with the Baraii series of 
Assam which is, mutatis mutandis, geologically isochronous and marked 
by a similar zone of unconformity; a fortiori, as in Assam, so in the 
Bengal basin the Oligocene is characterised by a very small proportion 
of oil and gas but above the unconformity, in Miocene beds, the heavy 
minerals are both more abundant and varied. 

2 Edwin H. Pascoe — A Manual of the Geology of India, Vol. III. Calcutta, 

J>- l68 5- 

3 S. Sengupta — op. cit. pp. 5-6. 

4 N. N. Sen — op. cit. p. 29. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


27 


Tertiary folded belt of Tripura, the Shillong massif and (less 
conspicuous) Meghalaya-Rajmahal saddle beneath Birbhum, did 
the sea finally recede completely from the Bengal basin area. 
Erosion occurred then, followed by peneplanation of the whole 
Tertiary basin area of Bengal. Due to the recession of the sea, 
the estuaries of the streams draining the ferallitic-lateritic lands 
were prograded and the landscape of Birbhum derived its dis¬ 
sected features. The South Bengal basin, it is believed, is still 
rising. 1 Finally, the older sediments were covered completely 
by a thick mantle of river borne Holocene alluvium. 

Lower Gondwana :— From Harinisinga megaplant fossils, viz. 
Schizoneurci gondwanensis, Glossopteris indica and Vertebraria 
indica werejiound which indicate a probable Barakar or Raniganj 
age. 

A borehole sample near Jaidev yielded spores and pollen of 
Striatites, Faunipollenites, Barakarites and Parasaccites indicating 
a Bafakar age. 

Upper ( Jbndwana :—From Dewanganj area megaplant fossils of 
Ptilophyllum acutifolium, Taeniopteris sp. were found indicating 
the presence of Upper Gondwana horizon probably of Jura- 
Cretaceous time. 

*Palynological study of samples from this area has also yielded 
a few lycopodiales and polypodiaceae spores and conifer pollen 
along with some tracheids indicating a probable Lower Cretaceous 
age. 

From Manumnagar-Harmadanga area also some pterido- 
phyte spore and conifer pollen of Upper Gondwana affinity were 
reported. ' 

Tertiary :—The Palynological analysis from different areas show 
the presence of * Lower Tertiary starts. The samples from 
Chakmurai, Bharkhuria, Kanduli, Rampurttai, Digalram, Ranipur, 
Supalkunri, IV^ldigi, Bortola, Puratangram and Kharbona have 
yielded pollens belonging to Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, Fagaceae, 
Palmae, Polypodiaceae, Gleicheniaceae, Schizeaceae, Cyatheaceae, 
Betulaceae, Nymphaeaceae, etc. and indicate age from Eocene 
to Miocene. 

Fossil wood specimens from river Bakreswar near Raipur, 
Sukhbazar and Ajay river near Kalikapur were examined but 
found to be difficult of generic identification as the preservation 
was not good. However, these fossils show affinity with Tertiary. 


1 Satyeshchandra Chakraborty — op. cit. pp. 37-28. 


Palaeontology 



28 


BIRBkUM 


Lithology 


i 

Dipterocarpoxylon sp., a common fossil wood of Miocene age, 
has also been identified from this district. 1 

Archaeans :—These formations, which crystallised at least 900 
million years ago, comprise the granite-gneisses, biotiteschists 
and calo-granulites traversed by quartz and pegmatite veins. 
Graphic inter-growths of quartz and felspar are observed in 
pegmatite near Khairahundi, Raspur and Kadirganj in Mahammad 
Bazar. 

There is a curious mass of granite at Dubrajpur about 2.4 km. 
south-west of Suri railway station. The rock rises perpendicularly 
to a height of about 30 feet, and is broken up into numerous 
irregular massive fragments due to weathering. The blocks are 
rounded, water-worm and of a dark brown colour but unweathered 
surfaces show a light brown or reddish colour. A few large 
granitic boulders are also found in the vicinity. 

Lower-Gondwanas (Permian):—Damuda Series, Barakar Stage . 
The Lower Gondwana rocks, overlying the Archaeans witji an 
unconformity, are the Barakars (of the Damuda Series), and 
form the northern extension of the Raniganj coalfield, and also 
occur as a small detached basin known as the Tangsuli basin, 
consisting of pebbly sandstone, grits, sandstones and carbonaceous- 
shales with thin stringers of coal. They are exposed over $n 
area of about five sq. km. lying between the Hingla and Ajay 
rivers and to the north of the Mayurakshi river, a few km. 
north-west of Suri (23°55 / : 87°32') and north of the Tangsuli 
village (23° 5 8': 87° 29'). 

The Talchirs are absent and the boundaries are somewhat 
obscured by laterite. Other Gondwana fields are al^) situated 
close to the Tangsuli basin. About 32 km. south-west of 
Tangsuli are the Damuda rocks of the Ajay ^ river, and within 
48 km. to the west at Kundit-Karaia is an exposure of the 
Barakar coal measures, with an outlier of the Talchirs in between. 
The minimum distance of Rajmahal traps and Dubrajpur beds 
from the Tangsuli outlier is about 11 km. to the north-east of 
Deocha (24°02 > : 87°35') on the Dwaraka river. 2 

Upper Gondwanas (Middle Trias-Jurassic) :—The Upper 
Gondwana sedimentaries are overlying the Archaeans on the 
west with an unconformity and often this contact is a faulted 
one and the fault-zone being marked by occasional quartz ridges 
and brecciated material. They are characterised by the presence 

1 Source: The Director General, Geological Survey of India. 

2 A. Hunday & S. Banerjee — op. cit. p. 43. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


29 


of white shaly clay (locally used as fire-clay), and occur as dis¬ 
connected exposures, 4 km. long and 2 km. wide, extending from 
Harmadanga on the south of Katpahari on the north. The 
maximum thickness of the sedimentary sequence is about 30 m. 
(south of DewHfnganj). 

Basalt traps {Middle to Upper Jurassic ):—The Rajmahal 
traps are found about 48 km. north of the Raniganj 
coalfield along the western margin of the northern portion 
of the district. Basalt flows overlie the Upper Gondwana 
formation in Dewanganj area, often with a baked contact. 
Places where traps occur are Saldanga, Baramasia, Sagarbandhi, 
Nawapara, Palasbani, Maluti, etc. The rocks generally form hill 
tracts with a characteristic flat-topped or terrace-like topography. 

The Rajmahal Series of the Upper Gondwana consists of 
610 m. thick bedded basalts with about 30.5 m. of intertrappean 
beds consisting of siliceous and porcellanoid carbonaceous clays 
and sandstones. The traps are represented by medium to fine¬ 
grained banelt, often vesicular and amygdaloidal, well seen in 
a canal section to the north of Dharampur. Agate and chalcedony 
fragments, possibly transported and redeposited, occur as thin 
bands near the trap boundary in the above canal section. The 
occurrence of these minerals would indicate the age of the 
flows to the basal part of the Rajmahal trap sequence. 

Columnar joints are sometimes present in the traps, e.g. in 
Pachami area, Saldanga, Baramasia, Sagarbandhi, etc. The traps 
are altered, especially along the southern boundary, to laterite. 

Tertiary Rocks :—The Tertiaries comprise mostly sandstone 
(felspathic%& ferruginous, also loose and friable sandstone grit) 
and clay beds. Several patchy exposures of the sequence are 
met with in thej Mahammad Bazar-Kharia-Kumarpur, Salak- 
Makhdumnagar-Shaikerdah; Chaubatta-Maubedia, Tentulia- 
Uska; Bartola; Chaknurai; Chandidaspur, etc. The Tertiary 
formations are associated with angiospermous fossil-wood as at 
3.2 km. south-west of Suri. Similar occurrences are noted in a well 
section near Bolpur, Mahammad Bazar, etc. These apparently iso¬ 
lated patcfles of Tertiary rocks over a wide belt suggest the presence 
of a continuous belt of Tertiary rocks in this part of the State. 1 

The Tertiary sequence overlies the Rajmahal Traps, but in 
the areas to the west of Makhdumnagar, it directly overlies the 
Archaeans, as proved by drilling. 

_ * _ 

1 A«Hundav & S. Banerjee — op. cit. p. 45. 



30 


BIR^HUM 


The clay (China clay or Kaolin) occurs as thick beds up to a 
maximum of over 30 metres. 

Laterites {Tertiary-Miocene): —Laterite, mostly vermicular 
type, occurs as a cap rock over the basalts and Tertiary formations. 
Pellety laterite is recorded at a few places* like Sialdanga. 
Vermicular laterite occurs mostly in situ as cap rock over basalt 
as at Pachaifti, Kapasdanga, Sagarbandhi, Baramasia, west Nalhati, 
etc. Vermicular laterite also occurs over and within the Tertiary 
sequence as in Salak-Makhdumnagar-Shaikerdah area. 

Pellety laterite is mostly associated with bauxitic clay as at 
Sialdanga. Laterite gravel has a widespread occurrence in the 
area. It is presumed to be of detrital origin. Lateritic clay 
occurs at low levels and shows stratification. 

Laterites are known to form by the sub-aerial weathering of 
almost all types of rocks in a monsoon (tropical) climate with 
alternate dry and wet seasons. The laterites found in the 
State are partly primary as they could be traced to the parent 
rock from which they have been derived, partly ^etrital and 
partly of doubtful origin. 

The primary laterites generally occur as hard consolidated 
blocks and show variegated colours. Limonite occurs in 
abundance in all the types of laterites. Two generations t of 
limonite have been distinguished from textural features in some 
of these laterites; X-ray studies reveal the presence of goethite 
in major quantity, haematite in minor quantity and gibbsite, 
kaolinite, anatase and calcite in traces. 

The white clay occurring as tube-filling and irregular bands in 
vermicular laterites is composed mainly of kaolinite. and traces 
of quartz. 

Chemical analyses of a large number of laterite samples, 
collected from different parts of the area, indicate that Fe„0 ( 
varies antipathetically with A1,0., and that Fe.^O,: A1..0 3 ratio 
ranges from 1:0.2 to 1:2.01. TiO, has a slight sympathetic rela¬ 
tionship with Fe„0,. The presence of anatase probably accounts 
for the appreciable amount of TiO, (1.5% to 5.0%) in these 
laterites. 

The chemical changes involved in the conversion of basalt to 
laterites are marked by a significant reduction in the percentage 
of most of the chemical components excepting Fe.,0^ which shows 
a sharp rise from 4.80% in basalt to about 51% in laterites 
capping it. 

Older A lluvium :—The alluvial deposits cover approximately 



GENERAL &, PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


31 


four fifths of the area of the State. The Older Alluvium 
(Bhanagar) is coarse and generally of reddish colour containing 
abundant disseminations of calcareous and limonitic concretions. 
This alluvium is probably of Middle Pleistocene age. 

The Newy Alluvium or Khadar is mostly confined to present 
day channels and contains less calcareous matter. The Newer 
Alluvium is of sub-Recent to Recent age and gradually merges 
into the deltaic flood plains. 

Building stones: —Fine-grained granites and Rajmahal Trap 
rocks are sometimes used for millstone. Granitic rocks are 
quarried near Panchra (23°46':87°20 / ) and Dubrajpur (23°48': 
87°22 / ). These are also available near Ranihabal (24°06 / : 
87°20'), Adarpur (24°01': 87°3r) and from places in the vicinity, 
e.g. Ku»hkhaspur, Haridaspur, Chak Mukunda, Chuarili and 
Kurabali. These rocks are suitable for building purposes and 
are also used as railway ballast. 

The sandstone, conglomerate and pebbles of Tertiary age 
occurring in the district are used for building purposes. The 
Tertiary gravels are suitable for aggregate in concrete mixes. 

Laterite, occurring abundantly, is a cheap building material 
which can be easily quarried and dressed. 

Large quantities of fresh trap rocks from the Rajmahal hills 
are used as road-metal and construction material. The quarries 
are located to the west of Rampurhat at Nalhati, Murarai and 
Rajgram railway stations. 1 

Gold, in association with such heavy minerals as monazite, 
ilmenite (Fe TiO s ), rutile (TiO.,), zircon (ZrSi0 4 ), magnetite (Fe O t ) 
etc., has been found in the Tertiary pebble beds of West Bengal, 
Bihar and Orissa. Tertiary gravels and other sedimentary rocks 
(sandstones and shales), about 45.7 m. to 76.2 m. in thickness, 
occur in Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura and Midnapur districts. 2 
Recovery of gold from these ancient placers is dependent to a 
large degree upon a full appreciation of the past and present 
geomorphology of these littoral shelf deposits, namely the Tertiary 
pebble beds. 3 Early Tertiary streams were able to deposit 
important placers because they flowed down from the crystalline 
hinterland which had been almost peneplained, and apparently 
some stream courses were influenced by faults which localised the 

1 Source: Geological Survey of India. 

2 Khedkar, V.R.R. — ‘Gold in the Tertiary Basin of West Bengal, Bihar 
and Orissa\ in Indian Mining Journal, Vol. 2, No. 8. pp. 9-10. 

* 3 W.D. Thornbury — Principles of Geomorphology, New York. 1962, 
pf. 567-68. 


Economic 

Geology 


Gold 



32 


BIRBHL M 


Coal 


gold lodes. Eocene climate apparently was tropical or sub¬ 
tropical and this favoured deep chemical weathering and release 
of large quantities of gold. The problem of locating buried placers 
is, in the first place, one of reconstructing the early Tertiary 
bedrock topography and determining the positions of buried 
bedrock valleys; but this in itself is not enough, for the age of 
materials overlying the bedrock is significant as well. Gold 
placers are likely to be richest where there was slowing down 
of stream velocities. Thus on understanding of varying gradients, 
shape and size of the buried channels is also necessary. Lying 
at the apex of the Damodar Embavment (and hence nearer the 
primary lode deposit) Birbhum has more prospects for gold 
than Purulia, Bankura or Midnapur. 

A small portion of the Raniganj Coalfield extends across th6 
Ajay into Birbhum. The workable reserve of coal in the district 
has been estimated to be nearly 94 million tons. There is, however, 
no coking coal in the district. A much smaller field occurs 
around Tangsuli where seams are hardly workable. 1 Within the 
Trans-Ajay portion of the field lie the colliery groups of Poripur, 
Kasta, Arang, Raswan and the Hingla. 2 The known coal bearing 
areas of the Raniganj coalfield cover 1,500 sq. km. of which 
115 sq. km., a narrow strip, lies to the north of the Ajay. 3 The^ 
extension of the field below the alluvium to the east has been 
proved by recent drilling carried out by the Geological Survey 
of India at Dubchururia (23°35': 87° 14 r ), which is about 4 km. 
north-east of the Andal railway station. A large oblique strike 
fault following the Ajay river with a downthrow to the north¬ 
east is responsible for the preservation of the trans-Ajay 
Gondwanas (within the Archaean land mass) against the effects 
of weathering. 4 Only Barakar series containing thick Kasta 
and Paharpur seams is exposed in the Trans-Ajay Coalfield 
extending from Pariharpur (23°50': 87°03') eastwards to Pajara 
(23°45': 87° 19'). These coalfields were intruded'-by a large 
number of igneous intrusions comprising the dolteritic -or 
basaltic dykes and ultrabasic mica peridotite and lamprophyre 
dykes and sills. These intrusives are probably the representatives 
of the volcanic activity which occurred during the post-Lower 
Gondwana period during the Jurassic time and manifested itself 


1 B. Ray — op. cit. p. 10. 

2 A. Hunday & S. Bancrjec—op. cit. p. 101. 

;t ibid^p. yj. 

4 ibid. pp. 38-39. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


33 


into the outpouring Rajmahal lava flows about 48 km. north 
of the Raniganj Coalfield in the Birbhum district. These dykes 
and sills have burnt the coal seams near their contacts producing 
jhcunas much to the deterioration of the coal seams. 1 The 
principal collieries in the district are Bhadulia, Gangaramchak, 
Kankartala, Russa, Kasta Bengal, Amrang and Kumar Khola. 
The last named colliery started production from 1968 while 
Amrang ceased production since 1963. In 1962 the total produc¬ 
tion was 1,16,844 tonnes as compared with 81,899 tonnes in 
1968. Kankartala is the most productive, but its output is 
dwindling. 2 

This district has long been known as an important centre of 
iron industry in Bengal. The ores in this region are derived 
from different formations: magnetite from the metamorphics 
near Namgulia; veins of limonite from the sandstones of the 
Damuda and Mahadeva series of the Gondwana system; layers 
of pisolitic iron-ore and pockets and thin beds of limonite and 
hematite from the laterite within flows of the Rajmahal trap (of 
Jurassic age) to the north of the district. Lateritic iron-ore is 
found capping the Archaeans, Gondwanas and the traps on the 
southern margin of the Rajmahal hills. 

, There are two or three seams of limonitic ore in the laterite. 3 
Analyses of the ores showed that they contained 28 to 59 per cent 
iron, an average of 29 samples showing 43 per cent iron and 
1.5 per cent PCX. 

The indigenous iron and steel industry was apparently more 
highly developed in Birbhum than almost anywhere else in 
India, ^he furnaces were comparatively large and the efficiency 
of the smelting operations was also much better than elsewhere. 
The iron was reduced to a really molten condition and the 
steel making process was a second operation which resembled 
‘puddling’. In 1852 there were about 70 furnaces at Deocha 
and other pl*ces each of which produced iron at a cost of Rs. 17 
for. 25 mds. in a single operation which lasted 4 complete days 
and nights. The annual output of each furnace was about 34 
tons of # iron (total of about 2.400 tons from all furnaces). 

The history of iron making in this district has been dealt with 
in Chapter V. 


1 ibid. pp. 41-42. 

2 Source: The Coal Controller, Government of India. 

1 V. Ball — ‘Geology of the Rajmahal Hills’ in Memoirs of the Geological 
«fmfey of India, Vol. 13. Calcutta, 1877. pp. 155-248. 



34 


BlRBHU^l 


Kankar 


Sands and 
gravels 


Clays 


Calcium carbonate concretions (ghootings or ghusiks or Kankar) 
which are fairly rich in lime content are reported to develop 
seasonally in the soils at various places in the trans-Ajay coalfield, 
in the Archaean tracts and in the alluvial plains. They are 
reported to have been used as a raw material in lime kilns since 
a long time. Kankar is formed by segregation of calcareous 
material into irregular lumps. With these calcareous concretions 
a certain amount of argillaceous matter is included and the 
proportion of this, in some cases, is such that, on burning, the 
Kankar produces a hydraulic lime or natural cement. 1 

There are two small deposits of quartz and felspar near 
Raspur and Kadirganj in Mahammad Bazar thana. These were 
quarried in the past for supplying glaze material to the Patelnagar 
Firebricks & Potteries Limited. 2 3 •* 

The soil with grain size ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm. is generally 
classified as sand. Sands require some treatment before they are 
used for certain purposes. When a high degree of purity is 
required they may be sieved through a series of screens, and 
washed to remove clay materials, mica and organic matter. For 
the glass-industry (colourless glass) sands should have a proper 
grain size (0.4 mm.) and the iron oxide content should not exceed 
0.02%. Inferior type of sand with about 1% FeO is commonly 
used for making green-glass. As glass-sands are rather rare, most 
of these sands are obtained from vein quartz, pure quartzite and 
pure friable sandstone, after pulverising these rocks. There are 
good occurrences of fairly pure-quartzite in the Birbhum district. 

Sandstone in the Tangsuli basin near Suri may be investigated 
with a view to exploit it for the glass industry. Sand o^the Ajay 
may be used for constructional purposes and for stowing in the 
collieries. An expert has estimated the total sand reserves as 
1,091 million tonnes in the Damodar and the Ajay rivers within 
the specified areas in the Raniganj coalfield.' 1 

Semi-precious stones :—Varieties of agate, chalcectony amethyst 
and rock crystal have been found in the amygdaloidal basalt -and 
are used in jewellery. Greenish crystals of beryl are sometimes 
found in the mica-bearing pegmatites of the district. ^ 

The terra cotta plaques of Birbhum are renowned for centuries. 


1 A. Hunday & S. Banerjee— op. cit. pp. 211-12. 

- B. Ray — op. cit. p. 10. 

3 S. Banerjee—‘Reserves of sand in the Damodar and the Ajay rivers 
within the Jharia and Raniganj Coalfields for stouring in collieries’ 
in Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress Association, 47th Session. 
Pi. c 3. Calcutta, 1960. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


35 


and are made from the local clays. Recent work of the Geological 
Survey of India has proved large deposits of good quality clays 
in Birbhum district. 

Mohammad Bazar Area :—Large deposits of Tertiary clay have 
been reportecf from many parts of the district, especially around 
Mahammad Bazar. Clay beds 4.57 m. to 7.62* m. thick and 
extending to a depth of 15.24 m. or more occur below a variable 
thickness of laterite and lateritic gravels followed by iron-stained 
white clay and then white clay. The pale white clay with a 
pinkish tinge, gives 40% yield of pure Kaolin. This is one of the 
best plastic clays having water of plasticity at 34.5%, drying 
shrinkage at 110°C.-145°C., fired shrinkage at 10-12% at 1,250°C. 
and also 19% at 1,450°C. The clay is suitable for pottery and 
refractories. When mixed with 50% of Kharidungri clay it be¬ 
comes suitable for any type of white ware including porcelain. 

The extent of the clay bearing area here is 5,26,760 sq. m. with 
an estimated reserve of 14,40,180 tonnes. This clay is now being 
quarried £pr use in the rubber and fire-clay industries. It is mica 
free, and quartz forms the main bulk of the grit. They are high 
in alumina and low in silica. 

A new township named Patelnagar has sprung up. Chalk 
?ind limestone are quarried in the neighbourhood and largely 
exported. The Khairakuri Ceramic Industries Private Ltd. was 
established in October 1965. It originally started under the name 
of Patelnagar Firebricks and Potteries Ltd. in 1960. 

Kumar pur Area (23° 59' : S7°35'E .):—The clay deposit is about 
1.5 km. south-east of Mahammad Bazar, and has an extension of 
about foflr hectares. It is being worked by M/S. Indian Mineral 
& Associated Industries Ltd. The clay is found between 1.52 m. 
and 4.6 m. deptii below the surface and continues down to a 
depth of 13.3 m. There are a few more- quarries in the area 
covering a total of 29.4 hectares of land. The clay is siliceous, 
ferruginous aTid mica free. Deposits adjoining Mayurakshi sub¬ 
canal is the best. The Geological Survey of India has estimated 
the crude clay in this area at 6,34,640 tonnes down to a depth of 
9 m. The deposit is promising and suitable for pottery, refrac¬ 
tories (C.S.I.R., 1959), and paper industry. Though high in iron 
and titania, it may be used in the manufacture of attractive ivory 
coloured earthenwares, low and medium tension insulato.rs and 
medium heat duty refractories. It is fairly plastic, pale cream 
in colour having 40 to 43% yield from crude clay. Fired colour 
at «L2$0°C. is cream with 17-21% shrinkage and slight to fair 



36 


BIRBHtfM 


vitrification. Unwashed finely ground clay from this locality is 
sold to the Imperial Chemical Industries and the Indian Oxygen 
and Acetylene Co.; the former using it as a filler for the manu¬ 
facture of insecticide. 

Khoria area ( 23°59'N . ; 87°36'E.) :—The quarries are about 
2.0 km. east of Mahammad Bazar. The clay bed extends for six 
metres in depth. The clay is fairly plastic, dull white to pinkish 
cream in colour having 32% yield from crude clay. The deposit 
is economic to work and is suitable for use in pottery, refractories 
and paper industry. The crude clay is white and mica free, and 
is being sold to Burn & Co. Ltd., Raniganj. This variety contains 
high amount of titania and is more ferruginous than the Kumar- 
pur variety. When fired at 1,250°C., its colour is pale cream 
with 17-19% shrinkage and slight vitrification. 

Angargaria ( 23°58'40"N . & 87°36'30"E.) The clay occurs 
1.8 to 2.4 m. below the surface adjoining the Mayurakshi sub¬ 
canal, about 2.6 km. south-east of Mahammad Bazar. It is more 
ferruginous but fairly plastic with pure Kaolin around 3^%. Fired 
colour is light cream at 1,300°C. with 18% shrinkage and slight 
sintering. The Bengal Ceramic Institute has found that these 
clays, besides being used in ceramics, may also be used in rubber, 
paint, textile and chemical industries either as sizing material oc 
diluent or filler. The high plasticity is particularly advantageous 
in the textile industries. 

Dewanganj ( 24°04'N . : 87°36'30"E.): —Clay occurs in Kaolinised 
Gondwana sandstones about 1.6 km. south-southeast of Dewan¬ 
ganj on the left bank of the Dwaraka. It is dull cream coloured, 
moderately plastic and shows 10% shrinkage, 17% absorption 
and white colour with no vitrification at 1,250°C. The deposit 
is suitable for white ware and refractories. o 

Deocha (24°02'N.: 87°35'E.) The clay is of the same 
properties as that of Dewanganj and suitable for white ware and 
refractories. c 

Chaknurai {24° 12'N. : 87°44'E.) :—Clays occur at south' of 
Chaknurai village, under a thin capping of laterite. The reserves 
are considerable. The material is lithomargic, dirty white in 
colour and fairly plastic. Fired at 1,400°C., its volume shrinkage 
is 28%, and it shows numerous cracks but is infusible. 1 

Detailed prospecting for clay deposits in the Shaikherdah- 
Makhdumnagar-Salak, Sursal, Chaubatta, Damra-Dharampur, 


i 


A. Hiinday & S. Banerjee — op. cit. pp. 152-53. 



37 


GENERAL & ^HYSICAL ASPECTS 

Chandini-Siulbona-Masra, and Bartola sectors was started during 
1962-63. A total reserve of over 21 million tonnes of clay has 
been estimated in all the sectors. In Shaikherdah-Makhdumnagar- 
Salak sector alone, a reserve of over 8 million tonnes of clay has 
been estimated in a block of 0.5 sq. km. where the maximum 
thickness of clay bearing sequence is proved to be over 35 metres. 

West of Rampurhat, a considerable area has been proved to 
contain clay deposits. Two sectors, Baramasia-Chaknurai-Bhatina 
and Tumboni-Pursala, have been delineated and a reserve of 8 
million tonnes of clay has been tentatively estimated in those two 
sectors. 

During the 1964-65 season prospecting for clay aided by drilling 
was conducted in Maubeliya, Ganpur Digalgram, Ranipur, 
Chaknurai, Bhatina, Tambuni, Sialdanga, Adda, and Bhurkuna 
areas. The clay beds are of varying thickness up to a maximum 
of over 40 metres. The deposits at Chaubatta (Maubeliya), 
Chaknurai, Tambuni and Adda appear to be promising. 

During 1965-66 season prospecting for China-clay deposits in 
Uska-PurStangram-Garipur; Maladihi-Angargaria; Purushottam- 
pur-Kabilpur; Kumarpur-Kharia; Khastagra-Saunsa-Kharbona; 
Jatla-Supalkunri and Chandidaspur sectors has been completed. A 
# total reserve of 69.25 million tonnes of clay has been estimated 
in these sectors. 1 

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS (IN PER CENT) OF SOME OF THE BIRBHUM GLAYS 2 


Localities 

Si 0 2 

A1 ,0, 

Fe 2°3 

TiOg 

CaO 

MgO Alkalies 

Loss on 
ignition 

Mahammtnl 

44-31 

36-97 

2.11 

0.80 

0.22 

0.26 

0.90 

14-34 

Bazar 

(Proper) 

Kumarpur 

• 

43-67 

35-23 

I.30 

3.12 

i -37 

0.92 

0.61 

13.78 

(C. S. Plot 
No. 1409) 
Kupiarpur 

• 

46.2? 

32.70 

3-03 

0.87 

2.21 

0.64 

0.48 

14.84 

(C. S. Plot 
No. 934) 
Kharia • 

43-72 

35 -J 2 

2.30 

3.84 

0.64 

0.11 

0.62 

13.61 

Rajya- 

44.20 

35- x 5 

2.50 

2-93 

0.88 

0.25 

0.50 

13.61 


dharpur- 

Angargaria 


.* Source: Geological Survey of India. 

2 ^A.»Hunday & S. Banerjee — op. cit. p. 154. 




38 


BIRBHUM 


Mineral 

springs 


A group of sulphurous springs, known as the Bakreswar Group 
of Springs (32 c 52' N.: 87"02' S.), are situated on the right bank of 
the Bakreswar stream, 1.6 km. south of Tantipara village. The 
approach to this area is by a 12 km. metalled road from Suri, the 
nearest town. Emergence of hot water and gases i§ noticed here 
at seven different spots aligned northeast-southwest, which pro¬ 
bably is a granite gneise fissure. 

The two important springs in this group are Agni Kunda and 
Brahma Kunda. The details are given below: 


Agni Kunda 


Brahma Kunda 


Temperature 
Rate of flow 
pH value 


71 °C. 

5,500 litres per hour 
9.3 


42 °C. 

5,500 litrestper houF 


325.8 parts per 
million (ppm.) 


26.0 ppm. 
85.0 

156.0 „ 
8.0 

present 

present 

2,8085 


not observed 
not observed 
0.7918 


Mineral content 
total ions of 
mineral con¬ 
centration 
Sulphate ions 
Chloride ions 
Sodium ions 
Calcium ions 
Gaseous content C0 2 
Hydrogen-Sulphide 
Radons % (mMc per 
litre) 

Therapeutic For both the springs: Cure for skin diseases, 

values digestive disorders & rheumatism, and induces 

appetite. 

The temperature varies only moderately in different springs: 
pH varies from 8.6 to 9.3 and the maximum hydrogen sulphide 
about 2 ppm. 

Radioactivity of these springs: Much of the curative property 
of the spring water, it is said, is due to the presence of th^,radio¬ 
active radon in solution, the radon being derived from the 
disintegration of thorium and uranium bearing minerals present 
in the rocks through which the waters circulate Argon has been 
detected'in the gases being emitted from Agni Kunda. The waters 
of the Agni Kunda are strongly radioactive. The Brahma Kunda 
waters ere feebly so. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 39 

The hot springs are regarded as a manifestation of divine power, 
and are frequented by barren women and women suffering from 
miscarriage. The Pandas (priests) assert their efficacy for bron¬ 
chitis, phthisis, diabetes, and nearly every description of skin 
diseases. 

Each hot spring is enclosed in a cistern 10 feet in depth and 
of dimensions ranging from a square of 9 feet to* a rectangle of 
75 by 30 feet. The name of the springs are Agni Kunda, Brahma 
Kunda, Setganga, Surya Kunda, Jiban Kunda, Bhairab Kunda, 
Saubhagya Kunda and Khar Kunda. The Government of West 
Bengal has developed this place as a tourist centre. Now the 
bathers are not allowed to descent to the holy waters of the cisterns; 
instead they are supplied piped water. 

To th^ north of Nagar there is a small streamlet having its 
catchment in Mushabani (J.L.8) and running into the Siddheswari 
Nala at Tantloi. The bed of this streamlet along a stretch of 
300 yards is full of hot springs. The water was found definitely 
hotter than that at Bakreswar on 30 March 1952 with the .usual 
sulphurous smell. 

Very close to the Nalhati town is a hillock, at the foot of which 
occurs a cold spring. 

Water supply in the crystalline tracts is mainly derived from 
surface water. Dug-wells are generally shallow. These tap only 
localised water bodies collected in the cracks and crevices of the 
impervious rocks, and from the upper weathered zones of the 
bed rock. The area suffers from water scarcity. The Tertiary 
and Pleistocene deposits in the district are mostly covered by a 
variable thickness of laterite which sometimes overlaps some 
portions^ the peneplained and highly weathered gneissic terrain. 
This laterite has generally clay beds at its base. In such regions, 
during the rain$ season, the water level rises to the maximum 
and during summer it falls to the top of the clay bed. The rise 
and fall in Jhe level of groundwater is very sharp, and there is 
always a steady outward discharge, away from the centre of the 
high land. Thus a large volume of water in the laterite cappings 
is discharged. In connection with oil-drilling at Bolpur an 
artesian structure was discovered which is now being utilised. 

According to previous workers such as R. Jones (1817), J. 
Everest (1831), D. H. Williams (1847), V. Ball (1881) and Oldham 
the entire Ganga plains extending from North Bihar through North 
Bengal to Assam can be considered to be susceptible to earth¬ 
quakes. In the rocky parts in the western part of the Sf£te the 


Hydro¬ 

geology 


Earthquakes 



40 BIRBHUM 

* 

isoseismals are not likely to exceed VIII (Mercalli scale). Hence 
it would be better to build houses with earthquake proof designs 
in the alluvial plains south of the Himalayas. For larger structures 
like dams etc. in the western parts of Bengal, provision for an 
acceleration due to gravity amounting to about 1 / ^Oth should be 
made in the designs. 1 


Flora 


Botanical 
divisions and 
nature of 
vegetation 


The vegetation of Birbhum District as a whole belongs to the 
tropical dry deciduous type with a few representatives of the ever¬ 
greens occurring here and there. The natural covering of the 
tract is of secondary nature due to intensive hio-edaphic inter¬ 
ferences. The net-work of canals of various irrigation projects 
has brought about 84% of the total land area under agriculture. 
Seasonal changes, which present mesic to xeric conditicftis during 
the course of a year, affect the growth of vegetation. Particularly 
in summer, the dry aspect of the general vegetation becomes pro¬ 
minent and the high lands of the district become parched, yellow 
and barren. 

Botanically, the district can broadly be divided into two zones. 
The first zone comprises the undulated high lands along the 
western part of the district. Although the soil erosion is acute 
in this lateritic area, several relict patches of Chotanagpur plateau 
forests are still to be found around Rajnagar, Mahammad Bazar, 
Hetampur and Suri. The vegetation of this region shows semi- 
arid nature and is similar to eastern Bihar. Species of scrubby 
thickets like Acacia Bridelia, Buchanania, Caesalpinta, Calotropis, 
Capparis, Cassia, Feronia, Jatropha, Phyllanthus, Streblus, 
Tephrosia, Wendlandia, Zizyphus and other plants of t% laterite 
soil are common. # Grooves of trees are rather scarce in the south¬ 
western parts of the district. The second zone, consists of the 
flat alluvial plain in the south and east of the district. The 
vegetation of this tract is characteristic of the alluvial rice plain 
of Gangetic West Bengal. Species of Ageratum *Alysicarpus, 
Aponogeton, Cayratia, Commelina, Dopatrium, Drosera . Helio- 
tropium, Indigofera, Ipomoea, Lantana, Leucas, Lindernia, Olden- 
landia, Polygonum, Sida etc. flourish well in this part * of the 
district. 

The common plants seen around the habitations in villages and 
towns are clumps of babla (Acacia nilotica), bel (Aegle Marmelos), 
ata (Annona squamosa ), kanthal (Artocarpus heterophyllus ), neem 


1 Sourer Geological Survey of India. 


GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


41 


(Azadirachta indica ), bansh {Bambusae arundinacea), papaya 
(Carica papaya), amaltas or sondal {Cassia fistula), lebu {Citrus 
medica), bot {Ficus benghalensis), pakur or aswattha (F. religiosa), 
am (Mangifera indica), sajina {Moringa oleifera), anira (Spondias 
pinnata), jam (Jyzygium cumini), tentul {Tamarindus indica), arjun 
(Terminalia arjuna) and other arborescent species. Trees, planted 
on both sides of the road are akasmoni or sortajhuri (Acacia 
auriculiformis), babla (A. nilotica), sirish {Albizzia lebbeck), gul- 
mohar {Delonix regia), bot {Ficus benghalensis), aswattha (F. 
religiosa), am {Mangifera indica), karenja {Pongamia pinnata), 
segun {Tectona grandis) etc. In hedges and on waste grounds and 
cultivated fields, species of kunch {Abbus precatorius), vasaka 
{Adhatoda vasica), ankura {Alangium salvifolium), kanta nate 
(•A mar animus spinosus), gobura {Anisomeles indica), sial kanta 
{Argemone mexicana), kantajati {Barleria prionitis), lakchana 
{Biophytum sensitivum), akanda {Calotropis gigentea), nayantara 
(Catharanthus roseus), bhant {Clerodendrum viscosum), dhutura 
(Datura metel), dhol kalmi {Ipomoea fistula), lajjabati {Mimosa 
pudica), kantikari {Solanum surattense), kalke phul {Thevetia 
peruviana), nishinda {Vitex negundo) grow abundantly. There is 
no extensive tract of grassland in the district. Species of Des- 
mostachya bipinnata, Eulaliopeis binata, Hackelochloa granularis, 
Heteropogen contortus, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pennisetum 
pedice datum, Pseudoraphis spinescens. Set aria tomentosa, Sporo- 
bolus diander are common on pasture grounds and on waste lands 
surrounding the forests. Prominent species of sedges belong to 
the genera Cyperus, Fleocharis, Fimbristylis, Scirpus etc. Margins 
of tanks, bunds of paddy fields and marshes are inhabitated by a 
mixed community of aquatic and amphibious species: kachuri 
pana {Eichhornia crassipes), kini {Eragrostis unioloides), fhanfhi 
{Hydrilla verticiflata). Isha langulya {Hydrolea zeylanica), kulia 
khara {Hygrophila suriculata), Kalmi {Ipomoea aquatica), kesar 
dam {Ludwigia adscandens), susni {Marsilea minuta), nukha 
{Monochoria vaginalis), pani lajuk {Neptunia prostrata), shaluk 
{Nymphsa nouchali), taka pana {Pistia stratiotes), several species 
of panijnarich {Polygonum spp.), Jhill mirich {Sphenoclea zeyla¬ 
nica), pani phal {Trapa natens), janjhi {Utricularia aurea) and 
others. The existing forest of the district is composed of sal 
{Shorea Robusta) as the principal species over the lateritic zone 
with mixed growths of haldu or dacum {Adina cordifolia), pial 
{Buchanania lanzari), palas {Butea monosperma), parshi {Cleistan- 
’thus £ollinus), gabdi {Cochlospermum religiosum), kend {Diospyros 



42 


BIRBHUM 


melanoxylori), sidha (lagerstroemia parviflora), mahua (Madhuca 
indica ), pea sal or murga {Pterocarpus marsupium), bhela {Seme- 
carpus anacardium) as the main associates. The ground flora 
consists mainly of common herbaceous species including some 
rare ones. # 

The district has certain picturesque charm of its own. The 
preponderance*of annuals, which come up with the rains, presents 
a splendid vista of green sloping high lands together with the vast 
stretches of green rice fields. The predominant rofty stands of 
tal (Borassus jlabellifer) and khejur ( Phoenix sylvestris) with the 
crown of their leaves, add conspicuous beauty to the landscape. 
The elegant and compact formation of arjun {Terminalia arjuna ) 
on banks of numerous streams, is characteristic of the district. 
The graceful chhcitim ( Alstonia scholar is) and the drooping golden 
yellow floral heads of akasmoni or sonajhuri {Acacia auriculi- 
formis ) and babla (A. nilotica ) often put forth delightful sights. 
The red blossoms of palas (Butea monosperma) and simul (Bombax 
ceiba ) present brilliant spectacle in spring. The flowers of sirish 
(Albizzia lebbeck ), bakul (Mimusops elengi), mahua {Madhuca 
indica ), sajina {Moringa oleifera ) and muchkunda or kanakchampa 
{Pterospermum acerifolium) frequently fill the atmosphere with 
mild fragrance. The long canopy of tall trees along the metalled^ 
roads in the valley of the river Mor and selected varieties of trees 
and shrubs, planted around Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, 
also draw the attention of visitors. The general vegetation of the 
district finds an ample place in some popular works in Bengali 
by eminent composers like Rabindra Nath Tagore and Tarasankar 
Bandyopadhyay. 

An analysis of the flora of the district reveals certain interesting 
phytogeographical relationships. A large number of rare plants- 
got introduced in the district from its adjoining* areas and form 
new records for the State of West Bengal. While certain species 
like Acampe praemorsa . Jatropha heynei, Mitrasac&ie pygmaes 
var. malaccensis, Oldenlandia umbellata and Sphaeromorphaea 
russeliana extended to the district from the Peninsular India, some 
Himalayan species like Hypericum japonicum, Atylosia volubilis, 
Genotheca ovatifolia, Synnema uliginosum succeeded in spreading 
in Birbhum through North Bengal and Bihar. The report of 
Ophioglossum nudicaule var. macrorrhizum from Birbhum is also 
noteworthy. The ten principal families according to their number 
of species are in the following order: Leguminosae, Gramineae, 
Euphoibiaceae, Compositae, Cyperaceae, Rubiaceae, Acanthqceae,' 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 

tj 


43 


Conwolvulaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Verbenaceae. Some 
dominant genera represented by 5 or more species are: Acacia, 
Blumea, Cassia, Crotalaria, Cyperus, Euphorbia, Ficus, Eimbri- 
stylis, Ipomoea, Jatropha, Lindernia and Solarium. 

Apart from the principal types of food and cash crops — rice, 
wheat, maize, potato, sugarcane, jute, pulses, oil seeds and vege¬ 
tables — the Birbhum district also produces several other important 
economic plants. The district is particularly rich in medicinal 
plants. Some common ones, which are exploited as indigenous 
drugs and form articles of trade are vasaka (Adhatoda vasica), 
kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata ), isharmul (Aristolochia indica ), 
satamul (Asparagus racemosus), nata (Caesalpinia crista), keu 
(Costos speciosus), barun (Crataeva nurvala), kesuti (Eclipta pro - 
trata), arytntamul (Hemideomus indicus ), kurchi (Holarrhena 
antidysenterica), kamala (M allot us philip pensis), siuli (Nyotanthes 
arbor-tristis), babul tulsi (Ocimum basilicum ), nasabhanga ( Peri- 
strophe bicalyculata ), sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina, R. 
tetraphylla), rehri (Ricinus communis), kantikari (,Solarium surat- 
tense), tentul (Tamarindus indica ), arjun (Terminalia arjuna), 
bahera (T. belerica), haritaki (7. chebula), gulancha (Tinospora 
cordifolia) etc. The majority of these drugs come from the 
forests. The pan (Piper betel) is cultivated for its leaves which 
a*re favourites as masticatory and are used in Ayurvedic medicine. 
There is quite a variety of timbers in Birbhum, used for agricul¬ 
tural and household work. Among the most prominent are bahul 
(Acacia nilotica), haldu or dacum (Adina cordifolia), sirish 
(Albizzia lebbeck), kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), simul ( Bom - 
bax ciaba), smalt as (Cassia fistula), sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), 
gamar (Qtnelina arborea), sidha (Lagerstroemia parviflora), jiyal 
(Lannea coromandelica), am (Mangifera indica), sal (Shorea 
robust a), segun (*T ectona grandis), asan (Terminalia tomentosa), 
pitali (Trewia polycar pa), and manv others. The kanthal (Arto- 
carpus heterqphyllus ), tal (Borassus flabellifer), am (Mangifera 
indica) and jam (Syzygium cumini) form the popular natural fruit 
trees of Birbhum. The bel (Aegle marmelos), at a (Annona 
squamosa), pial (Buchanania lanzari), papaya (Carica papaya), 
piara (Psidium guajava), kul (Zizyphus mauriticma) also grow 
abundantly. The recent introduction of kaju or hijli badam 
(Anacardium occidental) in the district has been found to be 
promising. The trees of babla (Acacia nilotica), palas (Butea 
monosperma), bot (Ficus benghalensis), aswattha (F. religiosa), 
kusun[ (Schleichera oleosa) and kul (Zizyphus mauritianc) are 


Economic 

plants 



44 


BIRBHUM 


Forest 

belts 


raised for tiny lac insects to leave resinous incrustation on their 
soft branches. The tunt (Morns alba) is commonly cultivated in 
Bhadrapur, Boswa-Bishnupur, Ganutia and their neighbouring 
areas to feed silk-worms. Several species of sisal (Agave spp .) are 
grown on a large scale near Rajnagar. 

The forests of Birbhum district occupy an area of 137 sq. km. 
which is only >% of the total land available as against the national 
forest policy resolution of having at least 20% of the area under 
forest cover in the plains. The forests are usually distributed in 
scattered patches in between the stretches of barren waste lands 
or fallow fields along the western fringe of the district. They are 
located in Nalhati, Rampurhat, Mahammad Bazar, Suri, Rajnagar, 
Khayrasol, Dubrajpur, Ilambazar and Bolpur police stations. The 
forests may be classified as lateritic forests, which ijjplude sal 
forest of about 116 sq. km. and miscellaneous forest of about 
21 sq. km. These areas have again many blanks inside and it is 
reported that an area of about 26 sq. km. has little or no trees. 
Thus the effective forest area is reduced to 11 sq.km, only. 

The old records of Birbhum make an intersting study on 
depletion of forests. The history is one of continuous destruction 
during the last two centuries. Although no estimate of actual 
forest area in the 18th century is available, the old records show 
that the area under cultivation was small, the population sparse 
and there was much jungle covering extensive tracts. There are 
even reports of ravages of elephants in 52 villages. 

With the introduction of Permanent Settlement, forests were 
gradually cut to bring land under cultivation. The practice of 
keeping land fallow and unscientific land management led to severe 
erosion. This is clear from the following table. 1 





Cultivable 


Area not 


Total 

Total culti¬ 

land inclu¬ 

Total of 

available for 


area 

vated area 

ding fallows 

column 

cultivation 

Year 

(acres) 

(acres) 

(acres) 

3 & 4 

(acres) 

1 

2 

S 

4 

5 

6, 

1924-32 

11,15,402 

7,68,900 

1,61,308 

9,30,208 

1,85,194 

1946-47 

11,15,30° 

7,26,900 

2 , 79 . 3 o<> 

10,08,200 

1,09,100 

Differences 

(—) »°2 

(—) 42,000 (+)i,i7>992 

(+) 77.992 

(-> 76.094 


Though the total of cultivated lands (3) and cultivable land 
including fallows (4) increased from 1924-32 to 1946-47 by 77,992 


i Nandan Sarkar — ‘Note on the impact of forestry and soil conservation 
works on the rural economy of Birbhum district and the scope of future 
development’, in Proceedings of Symposia, West Bengal Forest Cen- 
ten^j-y 1964. Calcutta, 1966. pp. 54-55. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


45 


acres, the total cultivated area shows a fall by 42,000 acres in the 
corresponding period. 

Thus, extension of cultivation at the cost of forest belts had 
been positively harnuful to the district’s economy. The decay of 
several forest based industries, e.g. lac at Uambazar is a further 
proof. Vast tracts of high dense sal forests are now reduced to 
derelict coppice growth of sal with the varying admixture of 
mostly low graded species. The forests are really scrubby and 
degraded except for about 26 sq. km. which are of proper stocking 
and quality. The biggest area of forest that has been left is 
Chaupahari jungle having an area of about 14 sq. km. under the 
llambazar police station. Other notable spots are Canpur, 
Kasthagora, Baidyanathpur, Kachujore, Asansoli, Rajnagar 
jungles aTtd their adjoining formations. Plantations in Birbhum 
Division were started from 1949, initially in the acquired waste 
lands and subsequently in the bank areas within the vested private 
forests. By 1964, 8,065 acres had been planted out of which 
1,313 acres failed due to fire and grazing, leaving 6,752 acres of 
successful plantations of Shorea robusta, Acacia auriculijormis, 
Cassia siamea, Pterocarpus marsupium, Dalbergia sissoo, Terminalia 
belerica, Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus, Bamboo and Sabai. Also 
about 70% of the major forest areas were brought under soil 
conservation measures. 1 The district is divided into five Forest 
Ranges as follows: Bolpur, Suri, Rajnagar, Mahammad Bazar 
and Rampurhat. The total forest area of 155 sq. km in 1969 
had the following legal status: 2 


Reserved forests 
Protected forests 
Unbiassed forests 
Other forests 


26.40 sq. km 
36.08 „ „ 
87.70 „ „ 
6.81 „ „ 


The forest* vegetation of Birbhum district in general conforms 
to’‘Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous—Dry Sal (4b/C2)’ of 
Champion’s classification of Forest Types of India. It is essen¬ 
tially t»pophilous, exhibiting marked erophytic tendency. Because 
of the low rainfall, the dry nature of climate and the highly porous 
eroded soil, the forests are poor in large-size timber content. The 
forests are of open park land type, in which trees grow in groups 
separated by scrubby under-growths. In summer, the' forests 

*r N^idan Sarkar—op. cit. p. 56. 

2 •Source: Divisional Forest Officer, Birbhum. 


Ecology ot 
Forest types 



46 


BIRBHxJM 


become almost leafless and the ground surface is fully exposed to 
the blaze of the sun. However, in the monsoon period they present 
a luxuriant appearance due to the growth of ephemeral species 
and green foliages of perennial forms. 

The top canopy in the forest area is represented''predominantly 
by sal ( Shoreq robusta). It forms extensive reserve in all forests. 
The usual associates of sal are khair (Acacia catechu), haldu or 
dacum (Adina cordifolia), khudi jamb (Antideema ghaesembilla), 
simul (Bombax ceiba ), pi a! (Buchanania lanzan), palas (Butea 
monospenna), gabdi (Cochlospermum religiosum), kend (Diospvros 
melanoxylon ), amlaki (Emblica officinalis ), gamar (Gmelina 
arborea ), sidha (Lagerstroemia parviflora ), mahua (Madhuca 
indica), kamala (Mallotus philippensis), sona (Oroxylum indicum), 
pea sal (Pterocarpus inarsupium), bhela (Semecarpur anacardium), 
kusum (Scleichera oleosa), rehan (Soymida febrifuga), arjun 
(Terminalia arjuna), bahera ( T . belerica), haritaki (T. chebula) 
and others. 

The undergrowths of the forests and their outskirts, usually 
contain species of jati (Barleria cristata), geio or kantakoi (Bridelia 
squamosa), karanda (Carissa spinarum), bhai birrung (Embelia 
tsjariancottam), parshi (Cleistanthus collinus), bincha (Flacourtia 
indica), kurchi (Holarrhena antidyscnterica), sakina (lndigoferu 
pulchella), rangan (Ixora arborea), champa baha (Ochna obtusata 
var. pumila ), kokoaru (Olax scandens), pind khejur (Phoenix 
scaulis), chakulia (Uraria lagopodioides), dhai (Woodfordia fruti- 
cosa), moyena (Xeromphis spinosa), kul (Zizyphus mauritiana), 
siakul (Z. oenoplia) etc. In the forests of Deucha, Dhamara and 
Chanda areas, thickets of thorny scrubs are met with frequently. 
Some of the common lianes and climbers of the forest regions are . 
satamul (Asparagus racemosus), lata palas or bandan (Butea parvi¬ 
flora), anantamul (hemidesmus indicus), dudhi lata (lchnocarpus 
frutescens), alkusi (Mucuna prurita), kumarika (Smilax zeylanica) 
and giant Dioscorea spp. Parasites and hemi-parasites like akasbel 
(C assy t ha filiformis), sarna lata (Cuscuta reflexa) and bar a mahda 
(Dendrophthoe falcata) are found in plenty. Epiphytes and ferns 
are rare and are represented by rasna (Vanda roxburghiiy, nanha 
(Cheilanthus tenuifolia), bhut raj (Lygodium flexuosum) and a few 
others. 

The Birbhum forests yield mostly sal poles of low quality. The 
supply of timbers from other tree species is very limited. A good 
amount of firewood is collected from the forests to meet local, 
demand. Some minor forest products like bidi leaves, sal leaves. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


47 


mahua flowers, pial fruits, grasses and fodder provide means of 
livelihood to people in forest areas. 

The forests of the district have been much destroyed. The need 
for greater food production has led to the ruthless destruction of 
forest lands. The cumulative effect of unrestricted grazing, randum 
felling and fires has resulted in the gradual removal of soil cover 
and its fertility. This is particularly true for the vested private 
forests and waste lands, which were later acquired through the 
Estates Acquisition Act of 1933. Recently, intensive soil and 
water conservation measures and afforestation work have been 
taken up by the Forest Department. Quick growing species like 
sonajhuri (Acacia auriculiformis), mahanim (Ailanthus excelsa), 
kaju (A nacaridum occidentale), minjari (Cassia siamea). Eucalyptus 
hybrids a?td boga (Tephrosia Candida) are being raised primarily 
for pulp wood and for temporary soil cover. Several successful 
plantations of sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), pea sal (Pterocarpus mar- 
supium ), sal (Shorea robust) and segum (Tectona grandis) are 
valuable additions to the timber crops of the district. All these 
are gradually replacing the sal coppice stools and failed plantations 
in different areas. An extensive afforestation work along the 
canal banks of the district is also in progress. It is thus expected 
that forestry and soil conservation work will have a lasting effect 
on the rural economy of the district. 1 

In 1969 the total forest area of the district was 38,298.00 acres 
or 155 sq. km. The progress of afforestation work in the district 
is as follows: 


Prior to First Plan 

88.0 

Hectares 

4rirst Five Year Plan 

— 1,015.0 

99 

Second Five Year Plan 

— 1,219.0 

99 

Third Give Year Plan 

531.0 

99 

1966-67 Plan 

162.0 

99 

1967-68 Plan 

136.0 

99 

196S-69 Plan 

— 142.0 

99 

1969-70 Plan 

— 142.0 

99 


Total — 3,435.0 


During 1954-55 the value of the principal forest products of 
Birbhum was only Rs. 1,830. This figure increased to Rs. 73,023 
during 1967-68, a forty-fold increase in 12 years. 2 

i Source: The Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 
a ^oufee: Divisional Forest Officer, Birbhuin. 


Broad effects 
of Government 
forest policy 
on the flora 
of the district 





48 


BIRBHJJM 


Measures under¬ 
taken for tltc 
preservation 
of fauna in the 
Birbhum forests 


Soil conservation measures have been taken up since 1961-62 
in derelict forest areas by digging contour trenches to facilitate 
absorption of water by the soil and to stimulate growth of the 
plant. The increasing soil moisture also promotes heavier under¬ 
growth which in turn checks soil erosion. Forest fire and grazing 
are also controlled to some extent bv digging cattle proof trenches 
along the boundary of the forests. The total area of the degraded 
iforests, brought under soil conservation measures up to the year 
1966-67, was 4,930 hectares. 

About 2,400 labourers are engaged on an average per month 
for afforestation and soil conservation work. Besides this, about 
500 labourers on an average are engaged by the lot purchasers of 
forest produce for felling etc. during the six months from October 
to March. About 28,000 metric tonnes of firewood and 3,000 
metric tonnes of timber (mainly sal poles) are obtained from the 
Lots sold each year. 

With repeated cutting of sal, much of the forests have given 
way to kend and mahua (which are seldom out). In the first stage 
of retrogression sal is also replaced by sidha and parasi in places, 
which in its turn gives way to kend. Palas is also associated with 
this stage of retrogression. Rahara is associated with heavy clay 
soil, usually characterised by the calcareous nodules. Cleistanthus 
is associated with a rather dry type of soil usually the rocky areas, 
but palas and kend are rather cosmopolitan in the matter of 
habitat. Before the last stage of disappearance of vegetal cover 
Combretum decandrum, Streblus asser and lately Lantalacamera 
are often seen to take over the control. These degraded 
forests are being planted with valuable timber and p^ilp wood 
species. 

Hardly any wild life existed in the scrubby degraded forest of 
Birbhum district except a very small number of partridges and 
one or two leopards when Government took possession of the 
forest. As soon as the Government exercised control over the 
forest in this district, the entire forest area was declared closed 
to hunting, shooting, fishing and capture and killing of all 
wild animals and birds except wild pigs, bears and 
leopards. 

In addition to this, the Forest Directorate has established a 
Deer Park over an area of 100 acres in Bolpur and has introduced 
some species of deer there, the number of which are increasing 
under.strict protection. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 


49 


The carnivora of the district consists of leopards, bears, wolves 
and other smaller species. The ungualata are represented by wild 
pigs. Leopards are not numerous, but are found in some jungles, 
chiefly in the Chaupahari jungle in thana Ilambazar, and in the 
Charicha jungle* Bears are very rare, but sometimes they 
migrate from the neighbouring hills in the Santal Parganas, and 
visit the country to the west of Rajnagar, when the mahua trees 
are in flower. Wolves are sometimes met with in small patches 
of jungle; their depredations are mainly confined to cattle, sheep 
and goats. Wild pigs are found in isolated tracts, especially along 
river banks and in jungles traversed by watercourses. They are 
mostly killed by Santals during their great annual hunts or drives 
in the dry weather. Besides the above, the long-tailed ape called 
hahuman (Jemnopithecus entellus), otters, hares, foxes and jackals 
are common; in some parts of the district the hanuman does con¬ 
siderable damage to growing crops, as well as to the thatch of 
houses. 1 

At Labhpur before presenting rice bhog to the goddess Phullera, 
a portion of it is given to the jackals, which are quite tame and 
advance without hesitation from the adjoining jungle, answering 
to the call of the name Rupi-Supi. The remainder of the food 
left by the jackals is taken as prasad .* 

At one time the district was subject to the ravages of wild 
elephants as is proved by the report of the Collectors at the time 
of the Permanent Settlement. In 1790 it was reported that in 
2 parganas 56 villages had all been destroyed and overgrown with 
jungle through the depredations of wild elephants, while an 
official return stated that 40 market towns had been destroyed in 
a similar way. No wild elephant, however, was noticed within 
about a century. 3 

The game birds of the district chiefly consist of partridges, green 
pigeons and various water-fowls. The grey partridge is plentiful, 
and green pigeftns may usually be seen on the highest branches of 
pipal -trees when they are bearing fruit. Among the water-fowls, 
the comb and Brahmani ducks are found in abundance. Geese 
are cold weather visitors, coming in large flocks to feed on the 
rice crops. Snipes are found in great numbers in the swampy 
places and in the beds of rivers, and are most common in the 
east of the district. 


Fauna 

Zoological 
types found 
in the district 


Game 

birds 


l L.S.S. O’Malley — op. cit. p. 6. 
s ,B. Ray — op. cit. p. no. 

3 ibid. f. i2. 


4 



50 


BIRBI6UM 


Fish 


Cm MATE 


Rainfall 


Temperature 


The principal rivers of the district, the Ajay and the Mor, con¬ 
tain rui, katla and sometimes hilsa. Tanks, which are numerous 
in the district, are stocked with rui, katla, mrigel, magur, koi, 
and other small fish. Alligators have been seen in tanks near 
Mayureswar. 1 * 

The climate of this district, is characterised by an oppressive 
hot summer, high humidity and well distributed rainfall during the 
monsoon. The cold weather from about the middle of November 
to the end of February is followed by summer from March to 
May. The south-west monsoon lasts from June to September. 
October and the first half of November constitute the post monsoon 
season. 

Records of rainfall in the district are available for eight stations 
for periods ranging from 23 to 102 years. The details of the 
rainfall at these eight stations and for the district as a whole are 
given in tables 1 and 2. The average annual rainfall in the 
district is 1,303.7 mm. (51.33"). The rainfall during the monsoon 
months June to September constitutes about 78 per cent of the 
annual rainfall. The rainfall in the district in general decreases 
from the north-west towards the south-west. The variation in the 
rainfall from year to year is not large. In the fifty year period 
(1901 to 1950) the highest annual rainfall amounting to 140 
per cent of the normal occurred in 1917 while 1940 was the year 
with the lowest annual rainfall which was 68 per cent of the 
normal. In the same fifty year period the rainfall was less than 
80 per cent of the normal in six years, two of them being conse¬ 
cutive. Considering the rainfall at the individual stations, annual 
rainfall less than 80 per cent of the normal in 2 consecutive years 
occurred once or twice at three out of the 8 stations. At Bolpur, 
five consecutive years of such low rainfall occurred during 1919 
to 1923. It will be seen from table 2 that the annual rainfall in 
the district was between 1,100 and 1.600 mm. (43.31" and 62.99") 
in 34 out of 49 years. 

On an average there are 69 rainy days (i.e. days with rainfall 
of 2.5 mm. — 10 cents — or more) in a year in the district. This 
number varies from 61 at Mayureswar to 78 at Suri. 

The heaviest rainfall recorded in 24 hours at any -station in 
the district was 673.1 mm. (26.50") at Suri on July 1, 1866. 

The district has a meteorological observatory at Suri. As the 
records of this station are available only for a few years, the 


i L. 5 .S. O’Malley—op. cit., loc. cit. 



GENERAL & PHYSICAL ASPECTS 51 

description of the climate that follows is based on the available 
records at this observatory and those of the observatories in the 
neighbouring districts where the climatic conditions are similar. 
Temperatures begin to rise rapidly from about the beginning of 
March. May is fhe hottest month with the mean daily maximum 
temperature of 39.7°C. (1()3.5 C F.) and the mean daily minimum of 
26.3°C. (79.3°F.). The heat in summer is oppressive. The maxi¬ 
mum temperature during the period April to the early part of June 
sometimes rises to 45 or 46°C. (113.0 or 114.8°F.). There is a 
welcome relief from the heat, though temporarily, when thunder¬ 
showers occur on some days in this season. With the advance of 
the south-west monsoon into the district early in June the day 
temperatures drop appreciably but the night temperatures remain 
nearly as high as in the summer months. Due to the continuing 
high night temperatures, with the increased humidity in the air, 
the weather during the monsoon season is often uncomfortable 
in between the rains. With the withdrawal of the monsoon by 
about the first week of October the temperatures begin to drop. 
The drop particularly in the night temperatures is more rapid 
from about the middle of November. January is the coldest 
month with the mean daily maximum temperature of 25.4°C. 
(77T7°F.) and the mean daily minimum of 12.9°C. (55.2°F.). In 
association with passing western disturbances spells of colder 
weather are experienced in the winter season. The minimum 
temperature may then occasionally go down to about 6 or 7°C. 
(42.8 or 44.6°F.). 

The highest maximum temperature recorded at Suri was 46.1°C. 
(115.0°F.) cm May 27, 1958 and the lowest minimum was 6.7°C. 
(44.1°F.) on January 24, 1956. 

The air is highly humid throughout the south-west monsoon 
season. Thereafter the relative humidity decreases progressively. 
The driest part of the year is the summer season, with average 
relative humidity of about 45 per cent in the mornings and about 
20 to 25 per cent in the afternoons. Later relative humidity 
increases with the progress of the season. 

Skies aft moderately clouded in May and heavily clouded to 
overcast in the south-west monsoon season. Cloudiness'decreases 
in October and the skies are clear or lightly clouded during the 
rest of the year. 

Winds are generally light or moderate with a slight increase 
in force during the summer and monsoon seasons. Winds blow 
mostly from directions between the south and east in May and 


Humidity 


Cloudiness 


Winds 



52 


BIRftHUM 


Special 

weather 

phenomena 


in the south-west monsoon season. Winds are light and variable 
in October, and blow mainly from directions between west and 
north in the cold season. In March and April they are mostly 
between south and north-west. 

Storms and depressions from the Bay of Bengal in May and the 
post monsoon season often reach the district and its neighbourhood 
and cause widespread heavy rain with high winds. Depressions 
in the monsoon season also affect the district and heavy rains 
occur. During the hot season thunderstorms occur mostly in 
the afternoons. Associated with them are heavy rains, occasional 
hail and severe squalls. These thunderstorms called ‘norwesters’ 
are locally known as kcilbaisakhi and the squalls associated with 
them usually come from the north-west. A sharp drop in 
temperature is experienced during these storms. Raiif during the 
monsoon season is also often associated with thunder. Fogs 
occur occasionally during the winter 

Tables 3, 4 and 5 give the temperature and relative humidity, 
mean wind speed and special weather phenomena respectively 
for Suri. 




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54 


BIRB^UM 


TABLE 2 

Frequency of Annual Rainfall in the District 
(Data 1901-1950) 


Range in mm. 

701- 800 
801- 900 
901-1000 
1001-1100 
1101-1200 
1201-1300 


No. of years 

0 

1 

4 

3 

6 

7 


Range in mm. 

1301-1400 

1401-1500 

1501-1600 

1601-1700 

1701-1800 

1801-1900 


No. of years 

8 

8 

5 

5 

I 

1 


Data for 49 years only 


TABLE 3 

Normals of Temperature and Relative Humidity 
(SUR1) 


Month 

Mean 

Daily 

Maxi¬ 

mum 

Tempe¬ 

rature 

Mean 

Daily 

Mini¬ 

mum 

Tempe¬ 

rature 

Highest Maximum 
ever recorded 

Lowest Minimum 
ever recorded 

Relative 

Humidity 

0830 

1730* 

°C 

°C 

°C Date 

°C 

Date 



January 

25.4 

12.0 

31.1 1955 Jan. 12 

6.7 

1956 Jan. 24 

63 

47 

February 

28.2 

14.4 

35.0 1960 Feb. 29 

8.3 

1956 Feb. 7 

51 

32 

March 

33.9 

19.7 

41.1 1955 Mar. 26 

12.7 

1957 Mar. 1 

46 

26 

April 

39.0 

24.0 

44.6 I960 Apr. 18 

17.8 

1955 Apr. 9 

43 

21 

May 

39.7 

26.3 

46.1 1958 May 27 

19.4 

1956 May 22 

57 

35 

June 

35.5 

26.0 

45.4 1958 Jun. 3 

20.0 

1955 Jun. 2 

76 

65 

July 

32.1 

25.5 

38.2 1958 Jul. 8 

22.0 

1960 Jul. % 

83 

79 

August 

32.1 

25.6 

36.6 1960 Aug. 4 

22.8 

1955 Aug. 16 

84 

80 

September 

31.7 

25.1 

34.9 1957 Sep. 29 

20.6 

1956 Sep. 27 

83 

80 ' 

October 

31.1 

22.9 

35.5 1957 Oct. 10 

17.0 

19$7 Oct. 31 

77 

74 

November 

28.3 

17.0 

31.4 1957 Nov. 6 

12.1 

1960 Nov. 23 

64 

57 

December 

26.1 

13.3 

29.6 1957 Dec. 10 

7.8 

1955 Dec. 28 

63 

50 

Annual 

31.9 

21.1 




66 

45 




*Hours LS.T. 






TABLE 4 

Mean Wind Speed in km./hr. 
(SURI) 


Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 
5.9 6.9 8.5 10.3 12.1 10.7 9.1 7.6 7.2 5.5 5.4 5.6 7.9 




Special Weather Phenomena 


GLNLKAL & PHYSICAL ASPHCTS 


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CHAPTER II 


HISTORY 


PRK-1'IIS'l ORY & 
Proto-History 


Early & Middle 
Stone Age 


Before proceeding to describe the pre-historic and proto-historic 
archaeological finds from the district, it would be necessary to 
know the geological context. The older alluvial deposits (as has 
been pointed out in the preceding Chapter) cover approximately 
four-fifths of Birbhum district. The older alluvium is coarse 
and generally of reddish colour containing abundant disseminations 
of calcareous and limonile concretions. What is more important 
for our purpose here is that, this alluvium is of Middle Pleistocene 
age. Laterites of the late Miocene age occur as capping substance 
over basalts and older Tertiary formations whenever they are found 
in situ; where not, lateritic gravels, over or within the Tertiary 
sequence, are presumed to be detrital in origin. Lateritic clay 
occurs at low levels and shows stratification. 1 

Birbhum district, unlike the neighbouring Bankura district, has 
so far yielded a very small amount of Early Palaeolithic artefacts. 
The only place in the district from where certain specimens of 
Early Palaeolithic artefacts have been found is JibdharpUr 
(P.S. Suri). 2 3 In 1963 an exploration team from the Archaeological 
Survey of India, Eastern Circle, found four hand-axes from the 
eroded embankment of a small tributary of the Mayurakshi river. 
In the absence of stratigraphic data and associated floral and 
faunistic data, it is hard to say whether these artefacts were made 
by the Pleistocene men or not. Besides this difficulty, another 
fact also makes it difficult to construct any hypothesis about the 
possible chronology of this hand-axe culture. 2 The difficulty relates 
to the finding of some Hake tools of the Middle Stone Age and 
some Late Stone Age microlithic implements from the same 


1 Source: Geological Survey of India, vide the report enclosed with the 
letter No. 4924 K/DG(WB)/ 68 / 4 o, dated the yth June 1969 . 

2 Indian Archaeology: A Review, 1963 - 64 . New Delhi. Information 
about tlie number of hand-axes recovered, was supplied by Parcsli 
Chandra Das Gupta, Director of Archaeology, Government of West 
Bengal (November 1969 ). 

3 The Congress of Asian Archaeology, in New Delhi, in 1961 , decided to 
classify the Palaeolithic period in the Indian context into three divisions: 
the Early, associated with the hand-axe industry; the Middle, with the 
flake industry and the l.ate Stone Age with the microlithic industry. 
Cf. B. & R. Allchin — The Birth of Indian Civilization. London, 
1968 . p. 28 . 



HISTORY 


57 


locality. Since all these artefacts have been found from the sur¬ 
face, there are no associated stratigraphic data. In the absence 
of such data it is impossible to say whether the hand-axes chrono¬ 
logically preceded the flake tools and the microliths, or whether 
the flake tool$ preceded the microliths, or whether some of these 
tools and implements of different technological stages were 
chronologically contemporaneous. 

Besides Jibdharpur where flake tools of the Middle Stone Age 
were found along with hand-axes of the Early Stone Age and 
microlithic implements of the Late Stone Age, flake tools were 
found from the eroded bank of the Brahmani river near Nalhati. 
Some pebble tools were also discovered from the same area. 1 2 3 
Flake tools were also found from Devi Lalaieswari hillock in 
Nalhati^i Middle Stone Age flake tools were also found from 
John Cheap’s Kuthi area on way from Santiniketan to Sriniketan, 
Syambati to the north of Visva-Bharati University campus in 
Santiniketan, Giridanga within Dubrajpur thana’s jurisdiction 
(microliths have also been found from these places).' 1 Some waste 
flakes and microliths have been found from the surface at 
Bakreswar (P.S. Dubrajpur) and Krishnanagar testifying to the 
existence of flake tool industry at these places. 

As has already been stated, microliths have been found from 
places like John Cheap’s Kuthi area, Syambati and Ballabhpur— 
near Santiniketan within the jurisdiction of P.S. Bolpur, Bakreswar 
and Giridanga within P.S. Dubrajpur, Jibdharpur (P.S. Suri), 
Nalhati and Krishnanagar along with the flake tools of the Middle 
Stone Age. Microliths of Late Stone Age have also been found 
from Chinpai (P.S. Dubrajpur), Hetampur (P.S. Dubrajpur), Siur 
(P.S. SuTi), Sekedya-Makhdumpur (P.S. Mayureswar), Dangalpur 
and Maldih (P.S. Mahammad Bazar). The general matrix, from 
which the microfithic blades, points, scrapers and fluted cores were 
found, is said to be, the weathered sandy silt, often of reddish or 
pinkish colqpr, lateritic in association and content. Microlithic 
blades, lunates and triangles have been found from Dangalpur and 
Maldih. 

In the absence of stratigraphic data it is very difficult to say 
by how many years decades or centuries the flake tool industry 
of Birbhum preceded the microlithic industry; if the former did 


1 Source: Paresh Chandra Das Gupta, Director of Archaeology, West 
Bengal (November 19G9). 

2 Indian Archaeology: A Review, 1961-62. New Delhi, p. 59. 

3 up.* cit., loc. cit. 


Late 

Stone Age 



58 


B1RBHUM 


precede the latter, it is equally difficult to say whether there had 
been a continuity between these two technological stages. 
Similarly, it is difficult to say whether the later part of the Middle 
Stone Age and the earlier part of the Late Stone Age chronolo¬ 
gically overlapped. Economically and socially, however, the 
change of technology from hand-axe to flake tools and flake tools 
to microliths did not signify any major or revolutionary change. 
Before the advent of .the Neolithic ground and polished tools. 
Stone Age man remained a food gathered and hunter reaping no 
surplus over gathering what was barely necessary for subsistence. 

One more noticeable fact of the pre-history of the district is 
that the Neolithic period is not distinguishable from the Copper 
or the Bronze Age as such. Only one site, namely Potanda in 
Indragachha mauza within the jurisdiction of Suri police station, 
has yielded four polished bar-celts with Neolithic characteristics, 
unassociated with either microliths of the earlier period or with 
the copper and/or bronze implements of the later period. 1 * 3 
Wherever else polished and ground stone tools of Neolithic affinity 
have been found, they have been found with copper and/or bronze 
artefacts. According to Bridget and Raymond Allchin, in South 
Asia the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic largely overlap and it is 
always better to use these terms in combination rather than try 
to separate the two theoretically distinct stages of devel pment.^ 
So. in the context of the pre-history and proto-history of the district, 
it would not be wise to separate the Neolithic and the Chalcolithic. 

But before we proceed to describe the Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites 
and finds in the district, one word about the continuity of the 
Late Stone Age microlithic industry right into the Chalcolithic 
period in the district is warranted. Almost all the important sites 
which have yielded ground and polished stone tools and copper 
and/or bronze implements, have also yielded nfLrolithic blades, 
burins, lunates and like objects. At least at two sites, where 
proper excavations have been carried out, that is in^Mahisdal in 
Bolpur police station area and Nanur in Nanur police station area, 
the microliths and polished celts and metal implements have been 
found from the same geological strata. This means that the micro¬ 
lithic industry did continue right up to the Neolithic-.Chafcolithic 
period and some microliths were contemporaneous with the 


1 Pareslr Chandra Das Gupta— Excavations at Pandit Rajar Dhibi. 

Calcutta, 1964. p. 41. 

3 Bridget & Raymond Allchin — The Birth of Indian Civilization. London, 
19G8. p. 28. 



HISTORY 


59 


polished celts and metal artefacts. But this should not be taken 
to mean that the economy remained more or less at the Late Stone 
Age stage. From the evidence of the remnants of human settle¬ 
ments and burnt grains, found out during the excavations at 
Chandidas-^lanur and Mahisdal, one cannot escape coming to the 
conclusion that hunting, food gathering and pastoralism had long 
ceased to be the predominant modes of economy-^-giving the people 
no surplus over and above bare subsistence. The human society 
had already evidenced the first revolution which was ushered in by 
the innovation of settled agriculture with plough. The introduction 
of settled agriculture with plough, for the first time in human 
history, gave man a surplus of production over what was barely 
necessary for subsistence, and some men in a group of men began 
to appropriate that surplus. 

Microliths, in association with Neoliths and Chalcolithie arte¬ 
facts, have been found from Kirnahar in P.S. Nanur (exploration), 

Beluti Saraswatitala in P.S. Bolpur (exploration), Giridanga in 
P.S. Dubrajpur (exploration), Chandidas-Nanur in police station 
area of Nanur (excavation) and from Mahisdal in P.S. Bolpur 
(excavation). Microlilhic finds from Kirnahar include a retouched 
point and a fluted core and from Chandidas-Nanur a few points 
and burins. 

Archaeologically and historically, however, the most important Mahistlai 
are the Chalcolithie (Neolithic-Chalcolithic) sites of the district. 

Of these the most important is Mahisdal (23°43' N. 87°41'E.) in 
P.S. Bolpur, on the north bank of the river Kopai. Here successive 
excavations have been carried out from 1964 by the Excavation 
Branch of the Eastern Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India. 

An c^cupational deposit of about two metres overlying a natural 
mound rising a little over three metres above the flood-plain of 
the Kopai, repealed two cultural periods through which the civili¬ 
zation survived. 

Period J was Chalcolithie and was constituted of two settlement 
phases as identified by two floor levels. The beaten earth floors 
with terracotta nodule soling were found covered with ash, burnt 
reed-impressed clay daubs and fire-baked husk-impressed pieces 
of iftud plaster. The houses were probably simple huts of mud 
plastered reed. Tools of production of the period were indicated 
by the finds which included microlithic scrapers, lunates and short 
blades, polished Neolithic celts and blades, a typical Bronze Age 
fiat copper celt, some copper arrow-heads and a few of what looks, 
like a fish-hook. Besides these, the material cultural assemblage 



Chaudklas- 

Nanur 


60 B1RBHUM 

of the period was represented by some terracotta gamesmen, a 
decorated bone comb, some bone pins and bone bangles, beads 
of semi-precious stones, a semi-precious stone steatite and a realis¬ 
tic terracotta phallus (it cannot be said whether this phallus had 
a ritual function). The pottery of the period was represented by 
black-and-rcd wares—plain or with paintings in white, and bright 
red ware—plain* or with painting in black. Paintings are cither 
incised linear fillets or pinholed decorations. So far as the shapes 
are concerned, lipped or channel-spouted bowls and carinated bowls 
with splayed out rims arc commonly met with. An interesting 
find is represented by a large quantity of charred paddy, scattered 
all over the second floor level, from a fairly large pit-granary in 
the vicinity. 1 This proves three things: one, that there was settled 
agriculture in the period; two, that rice had already be«*iie a 
staple and three, that there was enough surplus produce to need 
the construction of the pit-granary. This period is dated by three 
C14 Radio-carbon samples to 1380 and 855 B.C. 2 

Period II in Mahisdal was largely a continuation of the earlier 
cultural tradition. The pottery, however, became coarse. The 
finds include sherds of buff and grey wares, one of the latter with 
bold smudgy strokes in black, introducing a novel feature. Among 
other finds are microliths and a large variety of beads of semi¬ 
precious stones and a broken toy elephant. But the most signi¬ 
ficant feature of the period is the arrival of iron. Iron objects 
such as arrow and spear heads, chisels, nails and large quantities 
of slag testifies to the metallurgical attainment of the period. 3 A 
single C14 Radio-carbon sample suggests that iron came in use 
before 690 B.C. 4 

Another important Neolithic-Chalcolilhic site is Cha*ididas- 
Nanur within the jurisdiction of P.S. Nanur, where the first excava¬ 
tion work was carried out by K. G. Goswami of*the University 
of Calcutta in 1945-46. Subsequently the Eastern Circle of the 
Archaeological Survey of India carried out two more excavations 


1 Source: Eastern Circle, Archaeological Survey of India. Also: Bridget & 
Raymond Allchin — The Birth of Indian Civilization. London, '1968. 
PP- » 98 - 9 . 

s B. & R. Allchin — op. cit. pp. 199 8c 337. 

TFR 391. Chalcolithic. Years 3237, ± 105(3330 ± 105) old. 

TER 392. Chalcolithic. Years 2950 + 105(3035 ± 110) old. 

TFR 390. Chalcolithic. Years 2725 ± 100(2805 + 100) old. 

3 Source: .Eastern Circle, Archaeological Survey of India. Also B. & R 
Allchin — op. cit. p. 199 and N. R. Banerjee — the Iron Age in India. 
Delhi, 19Q5. pp. 217-9. 

4 ibid. p. 199 Sc 337: Tata Institute of Fundamental Research sample— 
389. Early Iron Age. Years 2565 + 105(2640 + 105) old. 



HISTORY 


61 


in 1961 and 1963. “Excavations revealed that the site had been 
in occupation from proto-historic through historical including 
medieval to modern times.” 1 2 But one cannot be certain about 
whether there had been a continuity in the sequence of human 
settlements a*c this place through successive stages of economic, 
social and technological development. The proto-historic or the 
Neolithic-Chalcolithic finds include black painted and plain red 
ware, white painted and plain black-and-red pottery and grey 
ware. Designs are incised and/or stamped. Pottery objects in¬ 
clude knife-edged bowls, channel spouted bowls and grey ware 
dishes—all in fragments. A retouched microlithic point was found 
from the level that had yielded sherds of black-and-red and red 
wa res.^ 

Still another important Neolithic-Chalcolithic site is the so- 
called Surath Rajar Dhibi in mauza Supur within the jurisdiction 
of P.S. Bolpur. The findings from the eroded base of the dhibi 
or the mound (about 12 feet high) include small fragments of red 
ware, black-and-red ware and chocolate-brown ware as also a 
small carnelian bead and a retouched microlith. 3 There was, how¬ 
ever, no excavation at this place. 

Besides the Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites already referred to, Neo- 
•lithic-Chalcolithic artefacts, often with microliths in association, 
have also been found from a number of places in the district during 
explorations conducted either by the Eastern Circle of the Archaeo¬ 
logical Surveys of India or by the Directorate of Archaeology, 
West Bengal. 

From Kirnahar in P.S. Nanur sherds of black-and-red ware and 
fragment of a channel-spouted bowl have been found along with 
a retouched microlithic point and a fluted core. 4 The mound of 
Beluti at Saraswatitala within the jurisdiction of P.S. Bolpur; on 
the road between Bolpur and Kirnahar has yielded fragmentary 
examples of black-and-red and red ware besides a small mineralized 
bone and a‘'microlithic waste flake. 3 Fragments of white painted 
blhck-and-red ware, bright polished red ware, channel spouted bowl 
and perforated pottery have been found along with microliths at 


1 Indian Archaeology: A Review 1963-64. New Delhi; 1965. 

2 ibid. & Indian Archaeology: A Review 1961-62. New Delhi, 1963, p. 59. 
s Paresh Chandra Das Gupta — The Excavations at Pandu Rajar Dhibi. 

Calcutta, 1964. p. 42. cf. Indian Archaeology: A Review 1962-63. 
New Delhi, 1964. p. 43. 

Indian Archaeology: A Review 1963-64. New Delhi, 1965 and Paresh 
Chandra Das Gupta (November 1969). 

# P afresh Chandra Das Gupta — op. cit p. 41 X- Indian Archaeology: 
Review 1963-64. 


Surath Rajar 
Dhibi 


Other Neolithic- 

Chalcolithic 

sites 



62 


BIRBIIU1VW 


Mandira, on the Ajoy, near Joydev-Kenduli, within the jurisdiction 
of Ilambazar police station.' A few rolled ochre coloured sherds, 
broken pieces of black-and-red and black polished ware have been 
found from Joshpur in P.S. Dubrajpur. This place has also yielded 
some microliths. 1 2 * Giridanga in P.S. Dubrajpur, ‘from where 
Middle Stone A^e flake-tools and Late Stone Age microliths have 
been found, has also yielded some fragments of channel spouted 
bowls. 2 Remnants of black-and-red ware and Northern Black 
Polished ware, along with microliths have been found from Kotasur. 4 
Remnants of black-and-red ware have been found also from Arai- 
pur, Bansra. Batikar, Baharia. Gopalnagar. Keora. Khustikari, 
Mangaldih and Nachanshala. 5 * Besides these fragments of black- 
and-red ware and channel spouted bowls have been discovered 
from Bergram, Gorapara. Hatikra, Hansra, Kayera and Kurrhitha." 

Salkhana within Haraipur mauza in P.S. Suri had been an inte¬ 
resting centre of Chalcolithic civilization of the region. The find 
of several skeletal remains of children has proved that this was a 
Chalcolithic burial site. All the remains go to prove that extended 
burial was the custom. 7 

From the distribution of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic remains in 
the district it can be presumed that the Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture 
was quite widespread in the district. From the typology of arte¬ 
facts found from the district, it can also be presumed that the 
Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture of the district had its similarities with 
the Chalcolithic civilization of Pandu Rajar Dhibi on the Ajoy in 
the neighbouring Burdwan district, the Period II of which was more 
or less contemporaneous to the Chalcolithic culture of the Period 
I at Mahisdal. A Single Radio-Carbon C14 gives the date of 
1012+120 B.C. to the Period II of Pandu Rajar Dhibi. s Since 
seals with scripts have been found at Pandu Rajar Dhibi with 
which the Chalcolithic culture of Mahisdal is contemporaneous and 
similar in character, the Neolithic-Chalcolithic of Mahisdal, if not of 
Birbhum as a whole, can be said to be properly proto*historic. 

1 Indian Archaeology: A Review 1962-63. New Delhi. 1964. p. .{<5 R.- 
Paresh Chandra Das Gupta — op. oil. pp. 42-3. 

2 ibid. 1963-64. R: ibid. p. 43. 

:! Source: Paresh Chandra Das Gupta, Director of Archaeology, West Bengal 
(November 1969). 

* Indian Archaeology: A Review 1962-67. New Delhi. 1964. p. 71. 

r> Indian Archaeology: A Review 1967-68. p. 68 & Indian Archaeology: 

A Review 1963-64. p. 92. 

(i ibid. & ibid. 

7 Source: Eastern Circle, Archaeological Survey of India: & Paresh Chandra 
Das Gupta, Director of Archaeology, West Bengal. 

* B. & R. Allchin — op. tit. p. 198. 



HISTORY 


63 


The earliest literary reference to the region of which the present 
Birbhum district forms a part, is found in the early Jain text— 
Achdrfmga-sutta .' The Sutra tradition, according to some 
scholars, dates from about the 5th century B.C., i.e. approximately 
from the time* of Vardhamana Mahavlra himself; it is assumed 
that parts of it were written around the 3rd century B.C. 1 2 
According to this text, the twentyfourth TTrthankara, Mahavlra 
travelled extensively in the Subba (— Suhma)-bhumi and Vajja 
( = Vajra)-bhfimi in the country of the Lad has (— R ujha). The 
country was pathless and rugged and the terrain was covered 
with forests; villages were few and far between and the people 
were inhospitable. They would not give alms to the monks 
ancLwould instead incite fierce dogs after them. 

During the period under review, Ladha or Radha was more 
or less a socio-cultural geographic concept, the land of the 
Ladhas or Radhas, with not a very well defined set of boundaries, 
unlike what it was between A.D. 9th and 13th centuries, when 
the terms Uttara-Radha-A/dwdtf/tf and Dakshina-Radha-A/tfnda/a 
assumed complete politico-geographic connotations with more 
or less definite boundaries. According to some later commentators 
of the Acharahga-sntta, the capital city of Vajja (— Vajra)-bhumi 
was a town called Panitabhiimi. From the internal evidence of 
Achardhga-sutta itself, it can be assumed that at least some 
parts of the modern district of Birbhum were included in Vajja 
(= Vajra)-bhtimi. From later descriptions, it appears that the 
land of the Suhmas, which came to be known as Dakshina (South) 
Radha, from about the 9th century A.D., never extended up to 
the nortl^of the Ajay river or to the west of the alluvial plains 
of the Gangetic West Bengal. On the other hand, from the 
descriptions of the land given in the text, it appears that the 
name Vajra-bhumi refers to that part of Radha where it was 
difficult to travel through dense forest and unwelcome lands filled 
with sand and gravels (lateritic?). This description of the 
physiognomy of the land fits well with the lateritic portions of 
the Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura and Midnapur districts. Yet,, 
it is ve*y difficult to assume that the tract of land which yielded 
remnants of chalcolithic Civilization which was definitely moving 
towards the early iron age technology the 8th century B.C. could 


1 Hirakumari (tr. and ed.)— Acharanga-sutta. Swetambar Jain Mahamandal, 
t Calcutta (undated). 

2 Mai* Muller (ed.)—Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXII. by Hern'ann 
Jacobi. London. 


Ancif.ni 

Pfriod 

Earliest literalv 
refemu e 



64 


BIRBHUM 


Buddhist texts & 
the Mahabharata 


in course of two or three centuries become as de-civilized and re- 
tribalized as gleaned from the Achdranga-sutta. Even if it is 
conceded that the chalcolithic civilization which developed in 
the cities and towns now represented by Pandu Rajar Dhibi and 
Mahisdal, were confined to the areas in and around those 
particular cities and a tribal state of affairs continued unabated 
in the distant villages and hamlets, the question still remains as 
to why MahfivTra, the great missionary, omitted the cities and 
towns from his itinerary of travels. 

It is the considered opinion of scholars like Ramakrishnagopal 
Bhandarkar, R. D. Banerji and Prabodh Chandra Bagchi that 
Prachyadesa (literally, the eastern country, which comprised 
practically the whole of West Bengal, including the present 
district of Birbhum) was Aryanized by Jainism and Jain monks 
and preachers, although there is no archaeological evidence to 
prove that. There is, however, one significant point to note in 
this connexion. There is a pargana in Birbhum district spread 
out in the thanas of Suri, Dubrajpur, Ilambazar and Bolpur 
called Jain-Ujhial. Parganas in Bengal, as we know, were created 
according to the terms of Todar Mai or Shah Sujah or Murshid 
Ouli Khan’s revenue settlements; but the names by which these 
parganas came to be known were often of older origin. Jain- 
Ujhial’ sounds like an older name. If it be so, then it would be 
interesting to know whether the tract of the country comprising 
the pargana had any connexion with Jainism at a certain period 
of time. Birbhum, which, according to R. D. Banerji, falls 
within ‘the Jain zone of influence’ has yielded a number of 
Jain icons of Pala idiom. 1 But this does not surely prove the 
contention that the Birbhum area was Aryanized by the Jains 
because these sculptures are from the 9th to 12tsh centuries. 

The easternmost country in the list of the Sixteen 
Mahajanapadas, mentioned in the Ahguttara Nikdya, is Anga. 
This country lay to the east of Magadha from w'fiich it was 
separated by the river Champa, probably the modern Chandan. 
The northern and eastern boundaries of Anga were probably the 
Ganges and the Bhagirathi respectively. The Katha-Saritsagarar 
states that Vitankapura, a city of Anga was on the sea. This 
description of Anga would include entire Suhma or the Southern 
Radha within Anga and would also include the portions of 


i Promode Lai Paul—‘Jainism in Bengal’, in Indian Culture, Vol. 3., 
Calcutta, 1936-37. 

8 25: 35; 26.115; 28-3-16. 



HISTORY 


65 


Northern Radha or Vajra-bhumi that lay to the South of the 
Ganges and West of the Bhagirathi including modern Birbhum 
district. The Mahabharata states that Anga included even Vanga. 1 
Bimbisara, the first known imperial monarch of Magadha, 
conquered Anga and probably retained some form of sway over 
Radha included in Anga. 

When the Nandas came to power in Magadha they possibly held 
this region in their dominion. Curtius Rufus and Diodorus 
Siculus mention that the Nanda king Agrammes was the lord of 
Prasii and Gangaridae. Prasii obviously is Prachya and stood 
for the Magadhan kingdom which had earlier absorbed Anga. 
Gangaridae has been held by scholars to refer to deltaic south- 
easL^Bengal. The Hatigumpha inscription of the king Kharavela 
states that the Nandas were also the rulers of Kalinga. A 
monarch holding sway over deltaic south-east Bengal and Kalinga 
from his imperial seat at Putaliputra must certainly have enjoyed 
hegemony over the greater portion of the Radha country. But 
it is difficult to say anything about the kind and extent of 
authority the Nanda emperor held over the jungle infested and 
sparsely populated infertile lands like Vajra-bhunii included in 
his empire. 

• The Nandas were ousted by Chandragupta Maurya. From the 
account of Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta 
Maurya’s Court, we find that Kalinga was an independent 
kingdom. Speaking about the river Ganges, Megasthenes 
mentioned of a river called Amystis, which used to flow past 
the city of Katadupa before joining the Ganges. 2 According to 
W. Wilson and W. Oldham, Amystis is to be identified with the 
Ajoy and Katadupa with the town Katwa in the neighbouring 
Burdwan district.* Megasthenes did not, however, specifically 
state whether the Amystis flowed through the kingdom of 
Gangaridae or whether Katadupa was a city of Gangaridae 
kingdom or not. Much credence, however, should not be given 
to these phonetic speculations. 

The 'grandson of Chandragupta, Asoka the Great, subdued 
Kalinga*and made no further conquest in his life. With the 
conquest of Kalinga, Asoka probably annexed the contiguous 
tract in the Midnapur district of West Bengal up to the 


• Sabhaparva. pp. 44 - 9 . 

2 # R. C. Majumdar — The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta, i 960 . 

p 2«7- 

* W. Oldham — Some Historical and Ethnical Aspects of Burdwan District. 
Calcutta, 1891 . p. 2 . 


The Age of 
the Xandas 


Maurya period 



66 


BIRBHUM 


Suvarnarekha river, to his empire. His pillar edicts from 
Jaugada and Dhauli (in modern Orissa) to Lauriya Araraja and 
Lauriya Nandangarh in North Bihar and Nepal Terai may be 
taken to mark the eastern limits of his empire. If a straight 
line from Lauriya Nandangarh to Dhauli is drartvn across the 
map, that would pass through Gaya district and exclude northern 
and southern Radha. There is also no direct epigraphic or 
numismatic evidence to prove that West Bengal lying between 
the Ganges and the Suvarnarekha was ever included in the 
Mauryan empire. 

Gupta period The greater parts of southern and northern Bengal were annexed 

to the Gupta empire either during the reign of Chandragupta I 
or during the reigns of his son Samudragupta or his graydr. on 
Chandragupta II. The Imperial Guptas annexed the province 
after subjugating a number of small independent principalities 
which dotted the country. Among the kings of Aryavarta, who, 
according to the Allahabad Prasasti, were uprooted by Samudra¬ 
gupta, we find the mention of one Chandravarman who may be 
reasonably identified with the king of that name mentioned 
in the Susunia rock inscription as the ruler of Pushkarana. This 
Pushkarana has been identified with Pakhanna in Bankura district 
and the Susunia hill is also in the same district. 1 But in atl 
probability, this Chandravarman’s kingdom lay to the south of 
the river Damodar and as such could not possibly have included 
any portion of the present Birbhum district. 2 It, therefore, seems 
improbable that the tract within the limits of the present Birbhum 
district came automatically within the Gupta empire with the 
conquest of the kingdom of Chandravarman.' 1 The question of 
Birbhum’s inclusion in the Gupta empire becomes all the more 
difficult to answer when we take into consideration the facts 
that neither has any Gupta record been found from Radha region 
nor does any Gupta record from any other area mention anything 

1 Amiya Kumar Banerji (ed.)—West Bengal District Gazetteers: Bankura. 
Calcutta, 1968. pp. 60-3. 

2 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—History of Bengal, Vol. I. Dacca, 1912.* 

:| According to a legend, during the 4th century, a dynasty allied the 
dynasty of tht Nala kings ruled over considerable portions of the 
present Birbhum district. Extensive ruins in Nalhati are pointed out 
in support of the theory that the ruins represent the archaeological 
remains of the palaces and temples of Nala kings. The descendants 
of the Nalas, it is believed, continued to rule over different parts of 
the district till about the 14th century, as small feudatory chiefs, 
vassals or landholding officials under different sovereigns. At different 
times the collateral branches of the house had their seats of residence 
at Nalhati, Sandhigarabazar and Chandidasa-Nanur. Vide (♦apjihar 
Mitra —Btrbhumer Jtihas, Vol. I. Suri, 1343 B.S. pp. 68-9. 



HISfTORY 


67 


about northern Radha’s inclusion in that empire.' Yet, it is a 
well-known fact that Gauda was very much within the Gupta 
empire. Since, in the 6th century a major portion of the present 
Birbhum district was included in Gaudaka, we can assume that 
even during the time of the Imperial Guptas the Birbhum portion 
of Gauda was included in the Gupta empire and that Gauda 
remained within the empire of later Guptas till the rise of 
Sasahka. 1 2 3 

With the fall of the Imperial Guptas, around the beginning of 
the 6th century A.D., governors of the Imperial provinces, in most 
cases linked with the Gupta dynasty by kinship ties, were assuming 
full sovereignty. One such governor was Vainyagupta, himself 
probably a scion of the Gupta family who was ruling over Eastern, 
Southern and South-western Bengal (South Radha).' He could 
not possibly retain his kingdom for long, for we find the same 
areas governed by three kings, Gopachandra, Dharmaditya and 
Samachardeva at different points of time after Vainyagupta. From 
a copper-plate inscription of a land grant found from the village 
of Mallasarul within Galsi police station area in Burdwan district, 
we know that one Maharaja Vijayasena was Maharajadhiraja 
Gopachandra’s vassal chief in Bardhamana-/>/w/c//. The same 
Vijayasena was also perhaps Vainyagupta’s vassal chief in the 
same Bardhamana-6/?//&f/.' It is quite probable that the adminis¬ 
trative division called Bardhamana-fr/j/z/ct/ was there even during 
the time of the Imperial Guptas. 

Whether the administrative division called Bardhamana-M/zA://, 
during the days of the Gupta hegemony over Bengal, included the 
whole or parts of the present district of Birbhum remains an un¬ 
solved question. From a Gazetteer-like source of the 6th century, 
viz. Varahamihira's Brihcit-samhita, we can infer that at least 
after the downfall of the Imperial Guptas a major portion, if not 
the whole, of the present district of Birbhum lay outside the 
boundaries of Bardhamana-fr/zzz/cr/. It is assumed that Gopa- 
chanffra reigned during the first half of the 6th century; Varaha- 
mihira’s Brihat-samhitii is also ascribed to the same century. 
According to Brihat-samhita, to the north of Bardhamanaka or 
Bardhamana-h/rz/fc// lay Gaudaka, which was a distinct entity with 
no connexions with Pundra (North Bengal), Tamraliptaka (part 


1 R. C. Majunular (ed.)—op. cir. p. 50 ff. 

2 ibid. p. 57 . 

3 ibi^. pp. 5 ,_ 3- 
* lot. cit. 



68 


BIRBHUM 


of the present Midnapur district), Vanga (East-Central Bengal), 
Samatata (Far Eastern Bengal) and Bardhamanaka (South Radha). 1 
Scholars like R. C. Majumdar think that Gaudaka of the 6th 
century included the tracts which in the 12th century came to 
comprise Kahkagrama-/>/?fvA//. The Northern Rtidha, from the 
Ajoy northwards, formed a Mandcila called the Uttara-Radha- 
Mandala (as distinguished from Dakshina or Southern Radha), 2 3 
within Kankagrama-M//A7/. It is presumed that in the 6th 
century Birbhum and Murshidabad, in the North Radha, formed 
integral parts of Gaudaka and lay outside Bardhamana-W/wA//’s 
or Maharajadhiraja Gopachandra’s jurisdiction.'* But the Brhat- 
samhitd does neither specify the name of the ruler of Gaudaka 
nor say anything about Gaudaka’s nature of relationship with 
Pundra, Bardhamana. Tamraliptaka, Vahga and Samatata. Tt 
may be possible that the later Guptas who had been ruling over 
Pundra in the North and Vahga in the East Central Bengal till 
A.D. 544 4 enjoyed some degree of control over Gaudaka. “This 
presumption is strengthened by the consideration that we know 
of no independent ruler of Gauda before the rise of Sasanka, who 
flourished early in the 7 th century A.D., probably began his 
life as a Mahasamanta, presumably under Mahasenagupta”—a later 
Gupta himself. 5 

The Gupta suzerainty over Gauda in the 6th century was more 
nominal than real. That Gauda came to be regarded as an 
important political unit by the middle of the 6th century A.D., 
is proved by the Haraha inscription of the Maukhari king i'sana- 
varman, dated A.D. 554 . Tt states, inter alia, that in the course 
of his victorious campaigns T. 4 anavarman came in conflict with 
the Gaudas, ravaged their territories, and forced them to retreat 
towards the sea. The reference to the sea seems to indicate that 
the conflict with the Gaudas took place in the southern part of 
West Bengal. We have seen before that this southern part of 
West Bengal probably formed an administrative division of the 
kingdom of Vanga. That kingdom v/as founded by Gopachandra 
at the first half of the 6th century. It is thus difficult to decide 
whether Isanavarman’s opponent was a Gauda or a Vahga king. 


1 ibid. pp. 13 & 27. 

2 ibid. p. 27. 

3 loc. cit. 

* According to Damodarpur Inscription No. 5, a Gupta ruler was ruling 
in Pundravardhana in A.D. 544; vide, Niharranjan Ray— Bengali) Ttihas, 
Adiparva (in Bengali). Calcutta, 1356 B.S. p. 455. ‘ *' 

5 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. p. 56. 



HiyfORY 


09 


If the former was the ease, then.it must be presumed that prior 
to Isanavarman’s invasion almost the whole of West Bengal came 
under the sway of Gauda and the Vanga king’s jurisdiction came 
to be confined to the southern and eastern Bengal, now in 
Bangladesh. Then ensued a long drawn struggle between the 
Maukharis and the later Guptas. While the Maukharis became 
firmly entrenched in Magadha, in Gauda the later Guptas more 
or less held their sway with the aid of their vassal chiefs and 
allies. Sasaiika, probably a Mahasamanta of Mahasenagupta, was 
one such vassal chief. 

The long drawn war with Maukharis, Kalachuris and the ruler 
of Kamarfipa shattered the power of the later Guptas. Sasaiika 
utilised the opportunity and under his leadership Gauda rose as 
a power to challenge the supremacy of the Maukharis, Kalachuris, 
Kamarupa and of the later Guptas themselves. 

Sasaiika occupies a prominent place in the history of Bengal. 
He is the first known king of Bengal who extended his territories 
far beyond the geographical boundaries of the present State of 
West Bengal. According to D. C. Ganguli, lie was a vassal chief 
of the Maukharis of Magadha. 1 * 3 According to R. D. Bancrji, he 
was either a son or a nephew of Mahasenagupta, thereby becoming 
a later Gupta himself." But most scholars think that he was a 
vassal chief under Mahasenagupta though not related to the latter 
by kinship ties. 11 There is hardly any doubt that both northern 
and western Bengal were included in his dominions and by aligning 
himself with the ruler of M a lava against the Maukharis, the later 
Guptas and the ruler of Thaneswar, he extended his kingdom up 
to Varanasi to the west. In the south he extended his suzerainty 
up to the Chilka lake. But it seems probable that he had to 
give up some of his acquired territories during his life-time and 
remain contented with Gauda and parts of Magadha till his death 
in A.D. 637-8.* 

Sasaiika had his capital at Karnasuvarna, now finally identified 
with' Kansonapur near Chiruti railway station on the Barharwa 
Loop line of the Eastern Railway, in Jangipur subdivision of the 
neighbouring Murshidabad district. The tracts within the 
boundaries of the modern district of Birbhum lay in the heart 
of the kingdom of Gauda. But then, probably only a small 


i D. C. Ganguli — Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XII, p. 457. 

a.Rakhaldas Bandyopadliyaya — Bahgalar It thus (in Bengali). Calcutta. 
31^ ftlition. p. 105. 

3 R. C. Majunidar (ed.) — op. cit. pp. 59-60. 

* ibid. pp. 64-5. 


Sasaiika 



70 


birbmuM 


portion of the present district was inhabited by human settlers. 
In the 11th century, Bhavadeva Bhatia, a minister of a Varmana 
king, described the tract as arid, jungly and sparsely populated. 1 
So, it may be presumed that during Sasaiika’s time also, only the 
eastern part of Birbhum adjoining the Murshidabad district and 
the southern part of the district adjoining the Burdwan district 
were properly inhabited and the rest was forest-covered with 
villages situated far from each other. 

It seems probable that the later Guptas, as well as Sasaiika, who 
inherited the later Gupta system of administration, remained con¬ 
tent with extending their suzerainty over the local chiefs and 
vassals. Thus local chiefs and vassals, besides being in the real 
command of power over the territory in their jurisdictipjj^also 
acted as agents of the imperial administration in the administra¬ 
tive divisions ( b/iukti ), districts (mandalas), subdivisions ( vishayas) 
or in the circles (bithis) in their charge. The amount of power 
they enjoyed depended on the strength or weakness of the imperial 
authority at a given period of time. This system of administra¬ 
tion came to stay in Bengal and during the Pala and Sena periods 
became highly formalized. - 

During Sasaiika’s time the tract within the boundaries of the 
modern Birbhum district was probably governed by the king 
himself from his capital at Karnasuyarna with the help of some 
subordinate officers. It is not precisely known in which bhukti 
or mandala the present district was included. Probably a part of 
the district along with some parts of the Murshidabad district 
comprised a vishaya called Audambarika-v/sV/c/ya, of which 
details will be given a little later. 

With Sasaiika’s death his empire broke up. Hieun-lsang, the 
Chinese pilgrim who visited Bengal after thc a death of Sasaiika, 
around the year A.D. 638, mentions besides Kajahgala (territory 
around Rajmahal immediately to the north of Birbhum, in Santal 
Parganas district of Bihar), four kingdoms in Bengal proper, namely 
Pundravardhana (North Bengal), Karnasuvarna (Central-West 
Bengal), Samatata (Far East and South East Bengal) and Tamra- 
lipti (South West, mainly comprising the Midnapur district). The 
first two undoubtedly denote the two component parts of Sasaiika’s 
kingdom, viz. North Bengal and northern and central parts of 
West Bengal, including the major parts of the modern districts of 


1 Niliarranjan Ray — liangalir Itihas, Adiparva (in Bengali). CalciUla, 
1356 B.S. p. 85. 



HISTORY 


71 


Murshidabad, Nadia, Birbhum and Burdwan. This statement of 
Hieun-tsang is further corroborated by the Arya-manjusri- 
mulakalpa and some archaeological evidence, as we shall presently 
see. 

I he political disintegration of the Gauda empire after the death 
of Sasahka seems to have been referred to in Arya-manjusri- 
mulakalpa which states, “after the death of Soma (= Moon = 
Sasahka) the Gauda-tantra (the Gauda political system) was 
reduced to mutual distrust, raised weapons and mutual jealousy, 
one king for a week, another for a month...” etc. The passage 
that follows immediately after the aforementioned passage in the 
Arya-manjusri-mulakalpa refers to a king named Jayanaga. 
“/V a gamju-Samahveyo Gauda raja bhavishyati/ante tasya wipe 
lisfdTKtra Jayadyd var naiadviktu.” 1 This Jayanaga is identified 
with the king of the same name whose coins have been found in 
different parts of West Bengal, including the Murshidabad and 
Birbhum districts and who issued a land-grant from the victorious 
camp of Karnasuvarna, once the capital of Sasahka. 

Now, who was this Jayanaga? We know that Sasahka's adver¬ 
sary Harshavardhana of Thaneswara made a grand alliance with 
Bhaskaravarmana of Kamarupa against Sasahka and became 
engaged in a prolonged struggle; but before this struggle ended 
sasahka died. According to the evidence of Nidhanpur copper¬ 
plate just after Sasanka’s death, Bhaskaravarmana occupied 
Karnasuvarna.- After the anarchy and confusion, caused by the 
invasion, had subsided and a son of Sasahka had vainly tried to 
re-establish the hegemony of his family, the kingdom passed into 
the hands of Jayanaga. The date of Jayanaga cannot be ascer¬ 
tained with precision, but judging from his coins and inscription 
he may be placed between A.D. 550 and 650. In his coins and 
inscription, he is referred to as Maharajadhiraja and as such it 
cannot be presumed that he was under the suzerainty of any 
other king. Although the extent of his kingdom is not precisely 
known, judging from the Vappaghoshavata copper-plate inscrip¬ 
tion it can definitely be said that his kingdom, inter alia, included 
the south-east portion of Santal Parganas, the whole of north 
Birbhum and a greater part of the Murshidabad districts. 3 But 
following the evidence of Hieun-tsang it can be presumed that 
Pundravardhana, Kajangala, Tamralipti and Samatata were out- 


1 Ary a-manjusn - m u la k alp a, 

2 Epigraphia Indies, Vol. 


verse GgO. The Sanskrit is 
XII, p. 73. 


corrupt. 



12 


BlkBUpM 


Socio-economic 

condition 


Audambarika- 

vishaya 


Rise of 
the Pal as: 
Gopala 


side the bounds of the kingdom of Gauda. 

The only details about the social and administrative conditions 
during the reign of Jayanaga is provided by the Vappaghoshavata 
grant of Jayanaga. The object of the copper-plate inscription was 
to specify the bounds of a certain village Vappaghoshavata 
granted to Bhatta-BrahmavirasvamT, a Brahmin of Kasyapa 
gotra as a perpetual endowment by Narayanabhadra, a Maha- 
samanta under Maharajadhiraja Jayanaga, in charge of 
Audambarika-v/jViaytf. This grant was drawn up by the pratihara 
Suryasena at the orders of Mahasamanta Narayanabhadra. 
Taking into consideration the boundaries given in the inscription, 
L. D. Barnett places the village in the Murshidabad district. 1 
What is more important for our purpose is the identification**)!' 
Audambarika-vA/wya, L. D. Barnett, R. C. Majumdar and 
Niharranjan Ray are of the opinion that Audambarika-m/iaytf 
is to be identified with the sarkur Udambar of Ain-i-Akbari of 
Abul Fazl. This 16th century sarkur comprised parts of Santal 
Parganas, north-west part of Murshidabad and northern parts 
of Birbhum districts. 2 

It should be noted with interest that unlike Bengal under the 
Guptas, the kingdom of Karnasuvarna, at least after Sasaiika’s 
death, was not divided into bhuktis and manclalas. The only 
administrative units into which the kingdom was divided were 
vishayas. Mahasamantas, either vassal chiefs or imperial officers, 
were in charge of administration of these vishayas. The feuda¬ 
tory chiefs were usually helped in the discharge of their adminis¬ 
trative duties by a class of officials called pratihdras. Scholars 
of social history like Niharranjan Ray have noticed a^tendency 
among the Hindu empire-builders of ancient India to settle 
Brahmins in rent-free lands. 3 The above reference to the dona¬ 
tion of the village Vappaghoshavata to the Brahmin Bhaua 
Brahmavlra conforms to that usage. 

The mdtsyanyaya 4 (literally, the state of affairs Where the big 
fish eats up the small and is in turn devoured by the bigger 
one and so on; figuratively, the rule of force) that ensued in 
Bengal after Sasaiika’s death came to an end after a cemury in 


1 L. D. Barnett — ‘Vappaghoshavata Grant oi : Jayanaga’, in Epigraphia 
Indica, Vol. XVIII. p. 66i. 

2 H. S: Jarett (tr.) Sc J. N. Sarkar (cd.)— Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl, Vol. II. 
Calcutta, 1949. p. 127. 

3 ibid. pp. 216-7. 

4 Yadi na pranayed raja dandam dandy esvatandritah/Sule J^atsydn 
ivapakshyan durvalan valavaltarah// Manu, Chapter vii. Verse so. 



tlJ^TORY 


73 


the middle of the 8th century with the election of Gopala to 
kingship by the prakriti, that is, by the general populace. 1 But 
it is most likely that the petty local chiefs and chieftains elected 
Gopala to be the king. Although in the Monghyr copper-plate 
inscription of *his grandson Devapala, Gopala is credited with 
the conquest of the earth to the south up to the sea, the claim 
is not taken very seriously by historians like R. C. Majumdar 
and Niharranjan Ray. Deltaic South-east Bengal was possibly 
the ancestral home land of Gopala and he possibly rose to 
kingship somewhere in the same Vaiiga country. From the 
Gwalior inscription of Niigabhaia an inference can be drawn 
that Vahga or the deltaic south-eastern Bengal was the ancestral 
home of Dharmapala, Gopala’s son. In his lifetime Gopala 
possibly annexed parts of VarendrI or North Bengal to his 
kingdom. But it seems unlikely that Gopala, during his lifetime, 
had annexed the central area of Gauda kingdom to his dominion. 

As we have already seen, the present Birbhum district formed the 
central area of Gauda kingdom along with the neighbouring 
Murshidabad district. But the question remains whether in the 
course of the anarchy that prevailed in Bengal for a century 
before the accession of Gopala, the kingdom of Gauda of Sasfuika 
or even that of Jayanaga remained intact. 

Gopala’s son Dharmapala ascended the throne in circa A.D. 1)haim . 
770. Dharmapala inherited a consolidated and powerful kingdom Rad ha 
comprising VarendrI (North Bengal) and Vaiiga (East Bengal). 

After annexing the rest of the present West Bengal up to at 
least as far south as the Damodar river, Dharmapala began to 
expand his dominion towards the west, far beyond the boundaries 
of Bengal. It thus seems probable that during the reign of 
Dharmapala the areas within the old kingdom of Gauda including 
the present district of Birbhum got incorporated into the Pala 
empire. The Pala empire at that time possibly did not include 
South or Dakshina Radha. 2 3 But Dharmapala’s son Devapala in 1} 

the* course of a victorious expedition to Utkala must have Radha 

annexed southern Radha to Pala kingdom. 2 During the long 
reign of about 40 years of Devapala the Pala empire reached the 
height of its glory, but this glory and brilliance-of the Pala 
empire did not long survive the death of Devapala. The five 


1 Khalimpur Copper-Plate Verse 4, Epigrapliia Indica, Vol. IV, pp. 243-54. 

a . Amiya Kumar Banerji (ed).—West Bengal District Gazetteers: Bankura. 
Calcutta, 1968. p. 65. 

3 op. cit., loc. cit. & R. C. Majumdar (cd.)—op. cit. pp. 117-8. 


ipala & 


la & 



74 


BlRBljUM 


successive Pala kings after Devapala had to struggle hard, iirst 
against the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashirakuias and Gahga kings 
of Orissa, then against Chandellas and Kalachuris to be in saddle 
in Varendn, Uttara-Radha, Vanga and Magadha. 

“These foreign raids may be regarded both -as causes and 
effects of the military weakness and political disruption of the 
Pala kingdom. The reference in Kalachuri and Chandella 
inscriptions to the various component parts of the kingdom such 
as Anga, Radha, Gauda and Vaiigala as separate units may not 
be without significance.” 1 * 3 While most of the countries mentioned 
above might have formed semi-independent principalities, Radha, 
denoting the portion of West Bengal to the south of the Damodar 
and west of the Bhagirathi (properly southern or Dakshina-Rad.ha) 
possibly was outside the orbit of any political influence of the 
Pala kingdom. Northern Radha, however, might have been 
within the Pala sphere of influence.* Before the end of the 
reign of Vigrahapala II (c. A.D. 980-8) the southern Radha 
was probably under the domination of the Kamboja dynasty of 
Da.i)<\d-bhukli. :i During the second half of the 10th century the 
Palas were in command only in Anga and Magadha—both areas 
being outside the limits of Bengal proper. 1 As a corollary of 
the last proposition we have to exclude the present district of 
Birbhum from the Pala kingdom during the second half of the 
10th century. Where then was Birbhum during that period? 
It is known that the Kambojas were in occupation of both northern 
Bengal and south-western Bengal, i.e. VarcndrI and Dum\n-b/iukti- 

1 R. C. Majumdar (ed.) op. fit. p. 133. 

- A inha Kumar Bauer ji (ed).—West Bengal District Ga/cllcers: Howrah. 
Calcutta, 197a. 

3 I hcrc is a sharp difference of opinion about llie original homeland of 
ilie Kambojas. According to some scholars the Kambojas of Bengal 
belonged to the tribe ol the same name met with in the NWI'T of 
West Pakistan. The great distance of the homeland of these Kambojas 
from Bengal has induced scholars to look for Kamlcjjas nearer the 
home. R. P. Chanda thought that the Kambojas came from Tibet. 
The Tibetan Chronicle, Pag-Sam-Jon-Zan, on the other hand calls a 
tract in the Mizo hills as the country of the Kambojas. The Dinajpur 
inscription (No. 48) refers to the rule of a Gauda king of Kamboja 
lineage and on palaeographic considerations it has to be refenud to the 
tenth century. It was assumed that the Palas loSl a portion of Varendn 
to the Kambojas. But after the discovery of the Irda plate of Rajyapala, 
the jewel of the Kamboja family which was issued from Priyahgu the 
capital of the said king in Dauda-b/tu/tlt, it became apparent that the 
Kambojas held sway not only over a portion of Yarcndra blit also over 
a portion of southern Radha. Prom the similarity of the names ol the 
kings some scholars think that the Kambojas and the Palas were not 
different, but facts militates against such assumption. 

1 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. p. 135. 



history 75 

niandala. Birbhum proper was neither in VarendrT nor was it 
a part of Dand'd-bhukli-mandala. The areas within the present 
district of Birbhum were in Gauc.la 01 Uttara-Radha. Gauda or 
northern Radha was probably ruled by some semi-independent 
chiefs acknoviledging nominal suzerainty of either the Palas or 
the Kambojas. 

When MahTprda I succeeded his father Vigrahapala 11 around 
A.D. 988, the prospects of his family were undoubtedly gloomy. 
By heroic efforts he succeeded in restoring the fortunes of his 
family to a considerable extent. On the evidence of Bangarh 
grant, Baghaura image inscription and Tirumalai inscription of 
Rajendra Chola, it can be inferred that within 3 years of his 
accession, Mahipala I re-established the hegemony of Pfila kingdom 
over VarendrT, Uttara (North) Radha and Sanaa tat a. Some light 
is thrown on the political situation of Bengal of the time by the 
account of Rajendra Chola’s invasion of Bengal. 

The northern expedition of the great Chola emperor was 
conducted in the course of two years—A.D. 1021 -3. 1 The 
Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola states that after conquer¬ 
ing OM'd-vishaya (Orissa) and Kosalai-nadu, the Cholas seized— 
"Tandabutti,... after having destroyed Dharmapala (in) a hot 
battle; Takkanaladam whose fame reached (all) directions (and 
which he occupied) after having forcibly attacked Ranasura; 
Vangala-desa, where rain water never stopped,.. . after having 
been pleased to frighten the strong Mahipala on the field of hot 
battle with the (noise of the) conches (got) from deep sea; 
Uttiraladam (on the shore of) the expansive ocean (producing); 
and the Ganga whose waters bearing fragrant (lowers dashed 
against the bathing places. 

There can be no doubt that Tandabutli, Takkanladam, Vangala- 
desa, and Uttiraladam in the above passage refer respectively 
to Danda-bhukti (part of the present Midnapur district around 
Danlon), Dakshina (South)—Radha, Vangala (East Bengal) and 
Uttara (North)—Radha. It has been reasonably inferred from 
the Tirumalai inscription, quoted above, that the Cholas attacked 
and overthrew Dharmapala of Danda-bhukti, Ranasura of 


* k. A. Nilkania Sastri—The Cholas. p. 247 ft. 

a The translation of Prof. K. A. Nilkania Sastri differs to some extent 
from flic translation given by Hult/sch (Kpigraphia Indira, ’Vol. IX, 
p. 223) in respect of Uttiraladam. Ilult/srh's translation reads: “Uttira¬ 
ladam, as rich in pearls as the ocean’’ or alternatively, ‘’Uttiraladam, 
cl§sc to the pearl producing ocean.” Both these translations seem 
'more probable than Prof. Saslri’s on geographical considerations. 


Where was 

modern 

Birbhum 


.Mahipala 


Chola 
im asion 




I 4 


Conflict with 
Kalachliris 


Clictli king 
Kama 


e 

76 


BIRBHyM 


Dakshina-Radha and Govindachandra of Vangala, in that order, 
before they fought with Mahlpala and conquered Uttara-Radha. 
It is not definitely stated that Mahlpala was the ruler of Uttara- 
Radha, though that seems to be the implication as no separate 
ruler of this kingdom is mentioned. 1 The account seems to 
prove that Danda-bhukti, Dakshina-Radha and Vangala were 
independent of Pala supremacy, or were semi-independent king- 
°ms at the time of the Chola invasion. Danda-b/iukti could 
not have been ruled by a feudatory of Mahlpala,’since we know 
t at a few decades back it came to be included within the 
domains of Kamboja king Nayapala. 2 Dharmapfda of Danda- 
!i iukt !_ might have been a scion of the Kamboja family. 
Ranasura ol Dakshina-Radha must have been a ruler belonging 
to the -Sura family Apara-Mandara identified with Mandaran of 
Arambagh subdivision in the Hooghly district. 3 The areas com¬ 
prising the present district having been in the Uttara-Radha 
zone, must have been under the direct hegemony of the Pala 
mg Mahipala. At least that is the implication of the Tirumalai 
inscription of Rajendra Chola. The Chola campaign, as Prof 
Ni kanla Sastn has observed, “could hardly have been more than 
a hurried raid across vast stretch of country.” 1 So it can be 
presumed that after the Cholas had left, Mahlpala along with 
the other kings of Bengal had regained their hegemony over the 
territories they lost to Rajendra Chola, 

The last years of Mahlpala’s reign were not peaceful The 
Kafachuri king Gaiigeyadeva was up against Mahlpala and in 
A.D. 1034 Gaiigeyadeva conquered Varanasi from Mahlpala. 
111 A - D -_ 1038 Mahipala was succeeded to the throne by his 

K' 1 ^ , ayapala ^ A D ' 10 ^ 8 ' 55 )* Around the same time the 
Kalachun king Gaiigeyadeva was succeeded by his son Lakshmi- 

knrna or Kama Kama continued his father’s policies against 
the Pala kingdom. Nayapala was succeeded by his son 
VigrahapaU m (c. A.D. 1055-70). During Vigrah^ala’s reign, 
too, the Kalachun king Kama or Lakshmikarna led an expedi- 

a^ainsf^N^ the PaIa k ; n S dom - During the expedition conducted 
against Nayapala, Lakshmikarna could advance only *ip to 

Magadha. But in the expedition that Lakshmikarna conducted 


.! l l : C, Majumdar (cd.)-op. cit. pp. 137 - 9 . 

“ -op. dtT'sl 6 inSCripti ° n ° £ Naya P 5,adcva - Sec R. C. Majumdar 

3 cSut^l Wji (ed °~ WeSt Bengal Gazetteers: Hooghly. 

4 Op. cit. p. 24 7. 0 


£ 


i 

K 



HISTORY 


77 




* 


against Gauda (meaning the Pala kingdom) and Vahga (which 
was outside the Pala hegemony), Lakshmikarna, at least, advanced 
up to Paikor (in Birbhum district) in Gauda where he had an 
encounter with the king of Gauda. This contention is proved by 
an inscription* bearing the name of Lakshmikarna (Chedi king 
Karna) on a stone pillar at Paikor within Murarai police station 
area in the modern Birbhum district. The Gauda king referred 
to in this Kalachuri expedition is undoubtedly the Pala king. 

“The inscription refers to the Chedi king Karna ... (whose) 
invasion of Bengal, before the discovery of this inscription, was 
a mere conjecture, based on some expressions found in the 
prasastis of the Kalachuris and in the Tibetan life of the Buddhist 
saict AtTsa-Dipaihkara. The present record of Karna-raja places 
the event beyond the realm of controversy. It is very probable 
that Karna by following up his victory over Rajyapala, the 
Gurjara king of Kanauj, proceeded east-wards and invaded the 
dominions of the Palas. His route must have been through 
south Bihar (ancient Magadha) and Bhagalpur (ancient Ahga), 
till he came to the Radha country. The situation of Paikor at 
the north western limit of the country suggests that as soon as 
the invading monarch penetrated so far into the heart of the 
Pala domains the Pala king must have made peace with the 
invader... Paikor is about three miles to the east of Murarai 
station on the loop line of the Eastern Railway.”' It is there¬ 
fore very difficult to say who, the Kalachuri or the Pala king, 
suffered defeat. 1 2 But it is quite evident that a peace was made 
between the two, possibly at the initiative of Atlsa Dipamkara, 
the Budcjhist saint. According to SandhyiikaranandT, the author 
of the Rdmacharita, Vigrahapfda defeated Karna and married 
his daughter YauvanasrI and thus an alliance was cementad 
through the marriage. While the second fact is probably correct, 
the first one may be an exaggeration by a court poet of the 
Pala king I^imapala. 

In the 11th century the Pala hold over West Bengal was no 
longer as firm as it was during the days of Devapala or MahTpala. 
A chiif, probably formally the administrator of a mcindala or 
district, calling himself Mahamandalika Isvaraghosha issued a 


1 Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, • 1921-22. 

pp. 78-0.- 

2 H. C. Sircar —Pala Yuger Naba-abiskrita Silalekha in Rabuidra Bhdrati 
• Palrikd, Vol. XI, No. 2, 1380 B.S. A new inscription found at Sian, 

•n-itV Bolpur seems to confirm that the Pala emperor did defeat Karna. 
The inscription was issued by a feudatory king of the Palas. 




Paikor 
inscription 
of Karna 


fc 

Isvafaghosha 
of phekkari 


78 


BIRBHrM 


land grant, the Ramganj copper-plate, in which he assumed the 
style of an independent king. The Ramganj copper-plate grant, 
though not dated, can, on palaeographic grounds, be assigned to 
the 11th century A.D. 1 2 Tsvaraghosha was a contemporary of 
Vigrahapala III. He issued a grant from a * place called 
Dhekkari probably the administrative headquarters of the 
mandate under the charge of Tsvaraghosha. According to 
Haraprasad Sastri. A. K. Maitreya and R. C. Majumdar- this 
Dhekkari is to be identified with the place called Dhekur near 
Katwa town, in the neighbouring Burdwan district. In this con¬ 
nexion it may be mentioned that just beyond the southern border 
of the Birbhum district, on the bank of the Damodar river in 
the Burdwan district, there is an 11th century temple (on stylHfu’c 
considerations) which is locally called Ichhaighosher-Jc///. This 
Tchhaighosh was probably none other than Tsvaraghosha of 
Dhekkari. Ichhaighosher-ete/// is situated inside a pargana 
that goes by the name of Gopahhum pargana; and this Gopabhum 
pargana once used to be ruled by Gopa or Sadgopa kings (local 
chiefs?) of Amragarh and Dignagar. Ichhaighosh or Tsvaraghosha 
might have been one of the earliest known Gopa or Sadgopa 
kings. The mandala of which Dhekkari was the headquarters 
might have included the southern and south-eastern portions ot 
the modem Birbhum district. 

The Kalachuri power was destroyed by the third quarter of 
the 11th century, i.e. during the reign of Vigrahapala Ill’s second 
son Surapala II. But before the Palas could take advantage of 
this, they had to face an invasion from the Chfilukyas of Kama- 
taka around the year A.D. 1068 (i.e. during the reign oWigraha- 
pala’s eldest son MahTpala II). The two Chalukya invasions that 
followed in quick succession were of far-reaching political conse¬ 
quences for Bengal. The most notable among these was the estab¬ 
lishment of a Karnata Kshatriya family in Radha. This Karnata 
Kshatriya Sena family, within a short time, established itself as 
a family of chiefs of local importance somewhere in Radha. As 
we shall see afterwards, there are grounds to believe that the 
Senas established themselves as de facto ruling powers somewhere 
in the Birbhum district, in the northern Radha country. A few 
years later, the Somavamsi ruler (of Orissa) Mahasivagupta Yayati 


1 Nanigopal Majumdar—‘Ramganj copper-plate of Isvaraghosha’, in 
Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. III. pp. 149-57. 

2 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. p. 146 & Niharranjan Ray—op. vit. 
pp. 420 8c 487. 


HISTORY 


79 




w 

w 


conquered portions of southern Radha. Eastern Bengal was 
already beyond the political control of the Pfdas. Thus, towards 
the middle of the 11th century A.D. the fabric of Pala sovereignty 


was crumbling to dust. 

Taking the weakening of the Pala authority as an opportunity. 
Divya, a high administrative official of the Palas in VarendrT 
belonging to the Kaivartta caste—rose in revolt against the 
Palas. As soon as MahTpala II advanced with his ill-organized 
army to curb the revolt of Divya, the former was killed and a 
Kaivartta kingdom was established in Varendri. The revolt, the 
consequent dispossession of MahTpala ITT and the subsequent 
« recovery of VarendrT by MahTpala’s brother Ramapala have been 
described in details by SandhyakaranandT, the court poet of 
Ramapala, in his Rdmacharita} Tn order to regain his paternal 
kingdom Ramapala literally travelled from door to door to enlist 
the support of powerful chiefs, many of whom were formerly and 
some still nominally were vassals of the Palas. By lavish offer 
of land, wealth and authority, Ramapala was able to persuade 
a number of these chiefs, in possession of well equipped forces, 
to come to his side. The detailed list of these independent or 
s#mi-independent rulers given in the Rdmacharita and annotated 
by a contemporary commentator is of great historical importance. 
This list provides a vivid and interesting picture of the political 
dismemberment of West Bengal caused by the declining authority 
of the Palas. 2 This list, inter alia, includes the names of Sflrapala 


Revolt of 
Divya or 
Divyoka & 
Ramapala's 
confederacy 
against lllnma 


the ruler of KujavatT, Bhaskara or Mayagalasimha the ruler of 
Uchchhala* Pratapasimha, the chief of Dhekkariya, Narasimharjuna 
the chief of Kaiphgzla-mandala and Vijaya-raja of NidravaU 
among the allies of Ramapala. 

According to Gaurihar Mitra, 3 there is a village in Santal Kn avan 
Parganas disPrict of Bihar, about 14 miles to the north of 
Nayhdumka and about 25 miles from the Birbhum border which 
still bears the name KujavatT. If the supposition is right, then 
it is piftbable that the chief of KujavatT held sway over some 
parts of the western areas of the present Bibhum district which 


-: ; T, , ,tr- s. ed \_ Gaudakavi Sandhyakatannrufi 

i Radhagovmda Basak (tr. &. e «- 

llirachita Ramacharita (and ed.). Calcutta, lfbg. 
a R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit._ pp. i 49 * 5 °- „ 

a * Cau^har Mitra Birbhurner Ilihas, Vol, I. Sun, t ,» 4.4 ■ P - ' 


& 


4 




80 


BIRBFUM 


Uchchhala 


Dhekkari or 
Dhekkariya 


Kajangala 


.t r 


includes the police station areas of Mahammad Bazar, Suri and 
Rajnagar. 

According to Nagendranath Basu 1 2 and Gaurihar Mitra - the 
Uchchhala kingdom is to be indentified with Jainujhial pargana 
spread out in the thanas of Suri, Dubrajpur, vlambazar and 
Bolpur in the modern Birbhum district. R. D. Banerji could 
not agree to this identification and argued that if the phonetic 
similarity between Uchchhala and Ujhial be the only ground 
for assuming that Jainujhial parganci in Birbhum represents the 
old Uchchhfila, then it becomes difficult to negate the claims of 
other places in Bengal having Ujhial as suffix to the first name, 
and there are several such places in Bengal. 3 

According to Nagendranath Basu 4 Dhekkari was in Goalp^ra 
or in Kamrup district of Assam. Nanigopal Mazumdar sup¬ 
ported Basu’s stand; but according to Haraprasad Sastri, 
A. K. Maitreya, R. C. Majumdar and Niharranjan Ray, 
Dhekkari is to be identified with a village called Dhekur near 
Katwa town in the neighbouring Burdwan district of West 
Bengal. In view of the fact that the name of Pratapasirhha of 
Dhekkariya occurs along with the names of the feudatory chiefs 
of West Bengal proper in the Rdmacharita and also in view of 
the fact that Ramapala got his allies mostly from among th? 
chiefs of West Bengal, the second identification appears to be 
more plausible. Nothing, however, is known about the extent 
of jurisdiction of the king of Dhekkariya. But if we assume 
that Ichhaighosh who built his temple on the Ajoy river, was 
none other than Tsvaraghosha of Dhekkari and that the 
mandala on which Tsvaraghosha presided was mor? or less 
conterminous with the Gopabhum pargana the Gopa or Sadgopa 
chiefs of which generally bore the title Ghosha,i then it can only 
be presumed that his sway also extended over some parts of 
the present Birbhum district comprising the southern thanas of 
Khayrasol, Dubrajpur, llambazar, Bolpur and Natiur. Isvara- 
ghosha’s successor Pratapasiriiha probably also held sway over 
these areas. 

Kayangala or Kajangala was the name by which the. north¬ 
western portion of northern Radha was known at least from the 
7th century A.D. According to Hieun-tsang, Kie-chu-u-khi-lo 


1 Nagendranath Basil —Banger Jatiya Itihas : Rajanyakanda. Calcutta, 
1321 B.S. p. 199. 

2 Gaurihar Mitra—op. cit. p. 58. 

2 Rakhaldas Bandyopadhya —Bahgldr Itihas (2nd edn.), Calcutta, p. 297. 

1 Nagendranath Basu—op. cit. pp. 250-1. 


history 


81 


or Kajangala was a forest-covered arid tract where «on ore 
med to be found. Twenty miles to the south of Rajmahai 
(Sahibganj) in the Santa! Parganas district of B.har, on he 
Pastern Railway Loop line there is a village called Kakjole. 
According to K. C. Majumdar and Niharranjan Ray. this place 
ftdl beam the memory of the name Kajangala;, it probably 
C been'the administrative headquaters of the d.stnct signified 
b ; the name Kajangala -mandala. This Kajanga a-m^ulu 

might have included some portions of t e pres 
Birbhum, viz. the areas within the police ^^ons of Murara^ 
Nalhati and Rampurhat. But the mention of Kajangala as a 
mandala raises a question. It is assumed that from about t 
9th' to about the 13th century Uttara-Radha itself formed * 
mandala within Vardhamana-f./mfcti; but mention of Kajanga a 
as a mandala means that either Uttara-Radha was divided into 
two mandala, within Vardhamana -bhukti or Ka ^ a " g ^ a "" a " f o “ , 
comprising some portions of cultural northern Radha was out- 

side the jurisdiction of Vardhamana -bhukti. 

Among Ramapala’s allies, the Ramachanta mentions the 
name of one Vijaya-raja of NidravalT. So far, no identification 
of NidravalT has been possible. But could this Vijaya-raja e 
identified with Vijayasena ? Vijayasena’s grandfiather' He ™^‘ 
sena immigrated to Radha from Karnata m the south. Durmg 
the days of political turmoil at the time of the reig 
MahTpala, Vijayasena’s father had probably carved out a 
principality for the family somewhere in Radha and m course 
of time possibly got recognition from the Pala kings as a 
feudatory or vassal chief. From the inscription found in Paikor 
in Murafti police station bearing the name of Raja Vijayasena 
it seems probable that the principality the Senas curved out for 
themselves in Radha was in the northern part_ of Birbhum. 
Could this principality be the same as Nidravali and Vijaya- 

raja be ideitfified with Vijayasena ? 

It thus seems probable that during the time of Ramapala, 
parts of West Birbhum were under the dominance of Surapala 
of KujavatT (and parts of North Birbhum comprised the king¬ 
dom & Narasimharjuna of Kajangala -mandala. Pratapasimha, 
the king of Dhekkariya, probably administered certain portions 
of the south and south-east of the present district of Birbhum. 

1 A. Mitra (ed.)—Census 19.51: West Bengal District Handbook—Birbhum. 

Calcutta, 1954. p. 1 2 49 - 

2 ^a«Hiagovinda Basak—op. cit. p. xxvn. 




s 


Nidravali & 
Vijaya-raja 


6 


82 


BIRBHUM 


Chodaganga’s 

invasion 


Rise of the 
house of 
Senas 


( 


/ 


Whether Bhaskara or Mayagalasiiiiha of Uchchhala ruled over 
at least in Jainujhial pargana, spread out in the thanas of Suri, 
Dubrajpur, Ilambazar and Bolpur, is a matter of conjecture. 
If Vijaya-raja of Nidravali is identified with Vijayasena, the 
problem still remains about the location and extension of his 
Nidravali kingdom. The king of Gauda, i.e. the Pala king, 
probably held direct sway over the rest of the present district, 
viz. the central and eastern parts of the district, which include 
tracts within the thanas of Labhpur, Mayureswar, Sainthia and 
Rampurhat. 

With the help of his allies Ramapala defeated and killed 
BhTma, Divya’s nephew, who' was then ruling over Varendr! and 
re-annexed VarendrI to Pala kingdom. Ramapala lived up^tp 
a considerably old age and restored to the dynasty some of its 
former glory. But taking advantage of the weakness Ramapala’s 
son Kumarapala (c. A.D. 1120-5), Anantavarman Chodagahga of 
Orissa attacked Bengal. Anantavarman was, however, defeated 
by Vaidyadeva, the able general of Kumarapfila. But it is not 
only an external enemy that Kumarapala had to tackle, he had 
to suppress the rebellion of some of his feudatory chiefs also. 
His brother Madanapala (c. A.D. 1140-55), who succeeded 
Kumarapala’s son, Gopala III, likewise had to defend his king¬ 
dom against the inroads of the Chalukyas and Gahadavalas and 
keep his rebellious feudatories contented by giving them more 
authority and control over their territories. The most significant 
of the troubles which the Palas had to face during the reign of 
Madanapala was the one created by the Karnata ruler of 
Mithila. This Karnata ruler found an ally in Vijayasena, 
whose father possibly was a feudatory chief or a vassal of the 
* Palas in Radha. Vijayasena became, for all practical purposes, 
an independent ruler, ruling over considerable portions of 
Radha and Vanga (he snatched away a portion of territory from 
the Varmans of Vikrampur). The Karnatas of Mithila and ,the 
Karnata-Kshatriya Senas of Bengal together defeated Madana¬ 
pala on the banks of the river Kalindi in Malda district. On 
the death of Madanapala, his son inherited a small kingdom 
comprising central and eastern Bihar and portions of northern 
Bengal. The latter he lost to the Senas within four years of his 
accession, i.e. by A.D. 1155. It is probable that soon after 
Kumarapala’s death the Senas asserted their supremacy over 
other feudatory chiefs and vassals of the Palas then ruling over 


. O 


* 


HISTORY 


different parts of West Bengal and became almost an indepen¬ 
dent ruling dynasty. 

The Pala kingdom, like the Gupta empire in Bengal, was 
divided into several bhuktis and bhuktis into mandalas, 
mandalas into vishayas and vishayas into several bithis for 
administrative* convenience. But unlike the Gupta administra¬ 
tion that preceded or the Sena administration that followed, the 
Pala administration, at least in the 11th and 12th centuries, was 
not very centralized. This is evident from the fact that the 
man in charge of the bhukti adminitration—a government 
official—became less important than the mdndalika or the 
mahdmdndalika who often had been a feudatory chief or a 
vassal. Mahdmandalika Isvaraghosha of Dhekkari and 
liJarasimharjuna of Kajangala-wflwda/a or Jayasimha of 

Danda-bhukti-mandala definitely wielded more powers than the 
bhukti-pati of Vardhamana -bhukti which comprised the above 
mandalas. The bhukti-pati of Vardhamana did not possibly 
enjoy any command over other vassal chiefs like the chief of 
Uchchhala or a Kujavat! whose territories were formally within 
his bhukti. Due to the system of rule through over-lordship, 
over-vassals and feudatory chiefs, the bhukti possibly became 
an administrative unit of little significance during the rule of 
fhe later Palas. Herein lay the weakness of the Pala empire. 
Whenever a weak Pala king was threatened or got involved in 
conflict with any foreign power, the vassal chiefs acted as 
independent kings. An exemplary case is the instance of 
Isvaraghosha of Dhekkari, who was only a mahdmdndalika 
possessing none of the titles of a paramount sovereign. He 
curiously* arrogated to himself the privilege of issuing orders 
to Rajans, Rajanyakas, RajnTs, Ranakas and so forth. 1 - The 
powers of the fehdatory chiefs possibly increased after the death 
of MahTpala, when so many feudatory chiefs had to be given 
the status o£ mdndalika and the composition of the mandalas 
altpred in proportion with the increase of the powers of the 
vassal chiefs declared as fjidndalikas. Till about the time of 
the invasion of Rajendra Chola, Uttara-Radha formed one 
manddla; in its place there appeared several mandalas by the 
first quarter of the 11th century, e.g. the mandala governed by 
mahdmdndalika Isvaraghosha of Dhekkari and Kajahgala- 
mandala. 

The district has yielded a number of artefacts, datable, on 


Pala administra^ 
tion 


l K. f\. Mazumdar—Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. III. Rajshahi, 1929. p. 150. 


84 


BIRBHUM 

t 


Archaeological 
evidence about 
the Pala 
period 


Religion 



stylistic grounds, to the Pala period. In 1946, an excavation 
team, led by K. G. Goswami of the University of Calcutta, 
found at Chandidas-Nanur within the police station area of 
Nanur remnants of sculptures which bear marks of Pala stylistic 
features of the 10th and 11th centuries. This team also dis¬ 
covered architectural members from the same ground-level. 
The historicity of these finds were corroborated by a subsequent 
excavation in 1963-64 done at the same mound by a team from 
the Archaeological Survey of India. 1 “The excavation revealed 
that the site had been in occupation from proto-historic, 
through historical, including medieval to modern times.” 2 

The Pala kings were devout Buddhists, professing their faith 
in Mahayana Tantric Buddhism but they were reasonably 
tolerant about the other religions of which the then Brahminical 
Tantric Hinduism had very little difference with Mahayana 
Tantric cults. Besides, the later Pala kings, as we have noticed, 
had very little power over their feudatory chiefs and vassals, 
many of whom were Brahminical Hindus. As a result of these 
factors, Brahminism and Jainism too flourished in their domain 
unhindered. But be it Mahayana Buddhism, Saivism, Saktaism 
or Vaishnavism of Pauranic Brahminical variety or Jainism— 
every religion in Bengal at that time was tinged by Tantric 
theory and practice. Although during the time of the Palas 
there developed a distinct style of sculpture and painting in 
Bengal, these arts flourished more under the patronage of 
wealthy individuals, traders and feudatory chiefs rather than 
under the direct patronage of the kings. The image of the 
Bengali serpent goddess Manasa, found in Paikor in " the juris¬ 
diction of Murarai police station bearing the inscribed name of 
Vijayasena, on the pedestal holding the icon, was probably 
consecrated by Vijayasena, for the benefit of his folkish Hindu 
subjects. 3 But the Vajra-tara icon of the Mahajcana Tantric 
Buddhism, stylistically datable to the 10th or 11th century, 
found among the extensive ruins of the Pala period, in Labhpur 
village, was definitely made on the orders of some one belong¬ 
ing to the Pala family. 4 The ruins of a Rekha-deul type of 


1 Indian Archaeology: A Review. 1963-64. New Delhi, 1965. 

2 op. cit., loc. cit. 

3 op. cit. p. 168. 

4 Indian Archaeology: A Review, 1961-62. New Delhi, 1963. p. 59; and 

P. C. Das Gupta, Director of Archaeology, West Bengal (in an interview 
in 1969). c 


t 




HISTORY 


temple of the 10th or 11th century, discovered by digging a 
mound in a field within Bolpur police station area, on the 
road from Bolpur to Ilambazar, can also be ascribed to the 

P eri0d - X , .jj, £ 

According to Gaurihar Mitra: 1 2 “Around the middle of the 
11th century, the Natha-panth! tantric saivas wielded consider¬ 
able influence in Birbhum. In the Nandigrama area within 
Murarai police station, myths and legends are in currency about 
a certain Natha-gosvaml. People still venerate a place sup¬ 
posed to represent his tomb. The Basishtha associated with 
the legend of the consecration of the Tantric divinity, Tara, 
at Tarapur (Tarapith) in Rampurhat police station, according 
‘ t <4 some, was a Natha-panth! Tantric and a predecessor of 
Mlnanatha or Matsyendranatha. It is supposed that the former 
was the precursor of the Natha-panth! yogis of Birbhum area.” 
But unfortunately there is hardly any credible historical 

evidence in support of these beliefs. 

A number of Jain icons have been found from different places 
in the Birbhum district, which, on stylistic considerations, are 
assigned to the Pala period. 3 

A good amount of information about Birbhum at the end of 
Pala rule and at the beginning of Sena rule (in parts of Radha), 
i*e. relating to the 11th century, is found in the Belava inscription 
of Varman king Bhojavarman of Vikrampur 4 and in the Bhuva- 
neswar inscription of Bhatta Bhavadeva. 5 6 Bhatta Bhavadeva was 
Mahasandhi-Vigrahika-mantrl or the defence minister of the 
Varman king Harivarman. This Smarta Brahmin, belonging to 
the Samavediya Kauthum sakhadhay! section and of Savarna 
gotra, originally hailed from the village Siddhala in Radha. This 
Siddhala-grawa has been identified with the village Sidhuli within 
the jurisdiction of the Suri police station in Birbhum district. 
Siddhala-gra/na was situated in the waterless, arid and jungly part 
of Uttara-Riclha where villages were few and far between. To 
sueh a waterless and arid country Bhatta Bhavadeva gave a water- 
reservoir (or tank). He also established a Narayanasila in his 


Bhatta Bha¬ 
vadeva 8c 
socio-econo¬ 
mic 8c ecolo¬ 
gical con¬ 
dition of 
Uttara-Radha 


1 The Ananda Bazar l’atrika. Calcutta, 28 May 1962. 

2 Gaurihar Mitra —Bnbhumer Itihas, Vol. I. Suri, 1343 B.S. pp. 67-8. 

* Promode Lai Paul—“Jainism in Bengal”, in India Culture, Vol. III. 
Calcutta, 1936-37. 

1 N. G. Mazumdar—op. cit. p. 24. 

5 ibid. pp. 25-41- 

6 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. pp. 22, 202, 320 8c 636; and Niharranjan 
Jta}—op. cit. p. 148. 


86 


BIRBHyM 


ancestral village and to house this Narayanasila he built a temple 
in Siddhala -grama} The tank he excavated stood in front of the 
temple. Siddhala -grama seems to have been a seat of Brahmins 
belonging to the Savarna gotra. Bhatta Bhavadeva enjoyed a 
special status amongst them. He, a Smarta Brahmin, was a fierce 
opponent (dialectician) of the Buddhists, 2 and was a great scholar 
of mimarhsa, siddhanta, tantra, againa, ganita, jyotirvidyd 
(especially horoscopy), arthasdstra, dharma, rati, smriti and 
dyurveda and had written treatises on all these subjects. The 
excavation of tanks and the establishment of temples were perhaps 
regarded as forms of social service and helped the persons ren¬ 
dering such services to gain prestige and influence. These two 
inscriptions also seem to suggest that Brahmin Vaishnavgs 
worshipped Vishnu or Narayana. Apart from the significant 
information on social life that these two inscriptions provided, the 
ecological information provided by them are of no mean signi¬ 
ficance. It seems that due to its waterlessness the northern Radha 
region was arid and jungly and as a consequence was sparsely 
populated. As it was sparsely populated the villages were situated 
far from each other. 

When the Senas came to be reckoned as the premier political 
power in Bengal during the tenure of Vijayasena (c. A.D. 1095 or 
1125 to 1157), they had already completed more than two genera¬ 
tions’ residence in Western Bengal. It is now generally assumed 
that the Brahma-Kshatriya or the Karnata-Kshatriya Senas 
immigrated to Bengal from Karnataka with one of the Karnata 
invaders of Bengal and stayed back to settle down in some sparsely 
populated area of Radha. In course of time the first Sena settler 
became the master of the area where he had settled. By becoming 
the master of the area the first Sena settler qualified himself to 
become a service or a tenure holder under the Palas. This 
ancestor of the later Sena kings, by his acumen and ingenuity, 
soon earned for himself and his family a principality where he 
and his successors began to rule as vassals of the Pala sovereign. 
Samantasena, 3 the grandfather of Vijayasena, in all probability, 
was the first in the family to establish himself as a vassal ?nd his 
son Hemantasena, described as a Maharajadhlraja in the inscrip¬ 
tions of his more illustrious successors, had their principality 

i N. G. Mazumdar—op. cit. pp. 24 & 40-1. 

3 Bhuvaneswar Inscription of Bhatta Bhavadeva, vide N. G. Mazumdar— 

op. cit. p. 39. 

3 N. G. Mazumdar—op. cit. ‘Deopara Inscription of Vijayasena’, p. 43 & 

‘Madhainagar Inscription of Lakshmanasena’, p. 107. ' c, I 


4 


HISTORY 


# 


87 . 


somewhere in the Birbhum district with headquarters situated not 
far from the Ganges (Bhagirathi). 1 Paikor, in the Murarai thana 
area, from where a Manasa image has been found with the name 
of Vijayasena inscribed on the pillar-like pedestal, 2 is about 20 
miles rom the* Ganges (Bhagirathi) now—as the crow flies. Not 
far from Paikor, is the village called BTrnagar, also within the 
Murarai police station area. There are extensive ruins at this 
place, which according to the local people are of a palace of a 
certain legendary king named BTrasena. Some would like to con¬ 
nect this legendary BTrasena with the Sena family and suggest that 
Birnagar had been the seat of administration of the feudatory 
Senas. 3 According to some Sena inscriptions, there had been a 
Pgrson called BTrasena in the family but according to very same 
sources, this ancestor of the Sena kings of Bengal, named BTrasena 
had never come to Bengal*. It might be possible that the legen¬ 
dary person of BTrnagar was not actually an ancestor of the Sena 
kings but a scion of the Sena family. To come back to history 
from legend, taking advantage of the weakening of the Pala hold 
over Bengal under Kumarapala and his son Madanapala, Vijaya¬ 
sena, the third head of the family, led a number of successful 
expeditions against the loyal vassals of the Palas, other neigh¬ 
bouring kings and against the Palas themselves and eventually 
captured the sovereign power in Bengal. The Deopiira inscrip¬ 
tion records the names of the kings over whom Vijayasena scored 
victories. One of them was Nanya (the Karnata chief of Mithila), 
another was VTra, possibly VTraguna of KotatabT (Koteswar in 
Bankura district) mentioned in the Rdmacharita of Sandhyakara- 
nandT. The inscription also refers to the name of Raghava, who 
might ha*ve been the second son of the Utkala king of Ananta- 
varman Chodaganga. The king of Gauda who is stated to have 
fled before the advancing army of Vijayasena might have been 
none other than Madanapala. 4 Vijayasena concluded a diplomatic 
alliance by marrying VilasadevI, the princess of the Sura family 
of-Apara-Mandara in Dakshina-Radha. 5 In spite of his eminent 
success, it does not appear that the final conquest of Gauda was 
achieved by Vijayasena. 6 But even though Gauda and the por- 


Vijayasena 
and Paikor 
inscription 


Exploits of 
Vijayasena 


1 loc. cit. 

2 ibid. p. 168; & Asok Mitra—Census 1951; West Bengal District Census 
Handbooks: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1954. p. 149. 

Gaurihar Mitra—op. cit. pp. 66-7; & Asok Mitra—op. cit., loc. cit. • 

N. G. Majumdar—op. cit. ‘Deopara Inscription', pp. 83-4. • 

i Niharranjan Ray—op. cit. pp. 502-03. 

6 it. A:. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. pp. 211-2. 


4 



88 


BIRBHUJM 


tion of the old Gauda kingdom which lay to the east of the 
Bhagirathi and north of the Ganges remained unconquered by 
Vijayasena the areas within the present district of Birbhum which 
once formed a part of the kingdom of Gauda were definitely 
brought under Vijayasena’s control. It seems probable that, even 
before Vijayasena embarked upon a policy of conquest, his father 
Hemantasena had successfully made a number of loyal vassal 
chiefs of the Palas in the northern-Radha subservient to him and 
in the process Hemantasena had probably extended his sway over 
most of the present Birbhum district and its adjoining areas in 
the Santal Paraganas and Burdwan districts. Although a con¬ 
jecture, this is based on the argument that, had Vijayasena not 
had the backing of wealth and manpower of a sufficiently big 
territory, it might not have been possible for him to embark upon 
such an ambitious policy of conquest and annexation. 

Vijayasena died around A.D. 1158 and was succeeded by his 
son Vallalasena. It was during the reign of the latter that the 
last vestige of Pala rule anywhere was lost when in A.D. 1162 
Govindapala lost Magadha—the last citadel of Pala power. 
Although the authenticity of the work Validlacharita is question¬ 
able, the information that the domains of Vallalasena comprised 
five provinces, viz. Vanga, Varendra, Radha, Bagdi and Mithila, 
given by the book, seems to be correct. 1 Since Varendra on the 
north and Bagdi (in Midnapur district) on the south were included 
in Vallalasena’s domains it seems that the whole of Radha in¬ 
cluding the areas within the present district of Birbhum, was under 
the hegemony of Vallalasena. Lakshmanasena, the son of Valla¬ 
lasena, succeeded his father about the year 1179. He added the 
epithet Gaudeswara to his imperial titles. Even if we assume 
that Vijayasena did not become the master of the city of Gauda 
or of the old Gauda kingdom in its entirety, it seems probable 
that his son Vallalasena became the unquestioned master of the 
old Gauda kingdom including the city of Gauda. £o the addi¬ 
tion of Gaudeswara to his imperial titles by Lakshmanasena does 
not mean that he was the first Sena ruler to annex the greater 
part of the territories within the old Gauda kingdom. 

According to the evidence of the Naihati copper-plate grant of 
Vallalasena, 2 Uttara-Radha, comprising the greater portion of 
the modern districts of Birbhum and Murshidabad formed a 
mandala within Vardhamana-6/z«&/i as it did during the reign 

1 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. p. 217. 

2 N. G. Majumdar—op. cit. pp. 68-80. c ^ 


HISTORY 


89 


of the early Palas. But during the time of Lakshmanasena, pos¬ 
sibly for better administration, the unwieldy bhukti of Vardha- 
mana was divided into two bhuktis. The newly formed Kaiika- 
grama -bhukti 1 possibly comprised the greater portion of the old 
Uttara-Radha-mawda/tf of Vardhamima-bhukti. The place Kanka- 
grama, from which the bhukti derived its name, is identified 
by some writers with Kakjole near Rajmahal in the Santal 
Parganas district of Bihar, while others have identified it with 
Kagram within the jurisdiction of Bharatpur thana in Mursidabad 
district. “The only facts that may be regarded as beyond dispute 
are that the new bhukti embraced considerable portions of the 
valley of the Mor river. It doubtless included parts of Birbhum 

''•Snd Murshidabad districts_It is possible that the new bhukti of 

K'ahkagrama represents the old kingdom of Gauda-Karna- 
suvarna.. .” 2 “Kahkagrama-h/ut/:// included a number of adminis¬ 
trative units styled as vithi. In the Bardhamana-fr/uvA://, the 
mandala came between the bhukti and the vithi. The new 
bhukti seems to have been split up directly into vithis.” 3 Accord¬ 
ing to R. C. Majumdar, the southern part of Kahkagrama-6/mfcfi' 
called the Dakshina-vlf/h embraced Uttara-Radha or at least that 
portion of it which was watered by the river Mor or the Mayur- 
alcshi. But this is hardly acceptable, firstly, on the ground that, 
the new bhukti was composed mainly of Uttara-Radha and very 
little else besides; secondly, the valley of the Mor or the Mayur- 
akshi can hardly be placed in the south of Uttara-Radha by any 
stretch of imagination; and thirdly, from the evidence of the 
Naihati copper-plate inscription of Vallalasena, it seems that 
Svalpa-dakshina-viY/z/ comprised certain portions of the present 
Katwa suddivision of the Burdwan district as well as some por¬ 
tions of the southern thanas of the present Murshidabad district. 
The western and north-western parts of the Birbhum district 
forming the valley of the Mayurakshi river was perhaps far north 
of Svalpa-dakshina-vl//?/. 

There was several important Sanskrit poets in Lakshmanasena’s 
court of whom Jayadeva was the most important. 4 Jayadeva was 
the mos£ significant poet of the medieval Sanskrit literture, just 


Uttara-Radha 
8 c Kahka- 
grama -bhukti 


i 


Jayadeva, 
the poet 


1 cf. Lakshmanasena’s saktipur copper-plate inscription of the third or 
the sixth year of his reign; vide Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXI, pp. 211-4 
and Vahgiya Sahitya Parishad Patrika, Vol. 37, p. 216. 

2 R. C. Majumdar (cd.)—op.-cit. p. 28. 

3 loc. cit. 

4 Bengali, or at least an early form of it, had already become a spoken 
* langmtge during the times of the Senas. But t-he language of the court 

anfl the written language of the upper classes continued to be Sanskrit. 




90 


BIRB^UM 


when the modern Indian vernaculars were establishing themselves 
as vehicles of literary expression. 

Jayadeva himself does not give any independent clue to his 
date, but the traditional accounts agree in placing him in the 
court of Lakshmanasena; and apart from the poet’s - own references 
to Dhoyl and Acharya Govardhana which point to the Sena rule, 1 
two verses by him, included in the anthology of Sanskrit poetry, 
called Saduktikarnamrita, compiled under the patronage of the 
Senas, also testify to the fact of his existence during the Sena 
period. Reference to DhoyT and Acharya Govardhana by Java- 
deva goes a long way to corroborate the tradition that the poet 
was a court poet of Lakshmanasena, since the first two had also 
been at the court of the same king. ^ ^ 

Jayadeva has mentioned the name of Kendubilva as the place 
of his birth or home. The name of the place appears in several 
variant forms in manuscripts, such as, Kindu, Tindu and Sindhu. 
One of the earliest commentators on Jayadeva’s Gita-Govinda, 
Rana Kumbha of Mewar (1433-68) took it as the name of the 
village where the poet resided or as his sasana; Chaitanyadasa 
believed it to be the name of his grama and kula (family); 
Sankarananda thought it to be the vritti-grama of Jayadeva’s 
family. The identification of this village poses a great probleyn. 
The Maithili scholars identify a village called Kendoli near 
Jenjharpur town in Tirhut-Darbhanga area of Bihar as Jayadeva’s 
Kenduli. 1 Oriya scholars are of the opinion that Jayadeva’s 
Kendubilva can convincingly be indentified with the village 
Kenduli-Sasana in Balitana police station area of the Puri district, 
lying between the Prachi and the Kushabhadra rivers. In support I 
of their hypothesis these scholars refer to some 16th century and I 
still later works where the authors are supposed to have stated 
that the poet was a native of Utkala. 4 But the evidence of the 
authors writing almost four hundred years or more after the 
demise of the poet is of no more value than claims made on the 
subject by the writers of the 20th century. 

In Bengal, tradition associates Jayadeva with the village Jaydev- 
Kenduli (J. L. No. 63) within Ilambazar thana in the £irbhum 


1 R. C. Majumdar (cd.)—op. cit. p. 369. 

3 R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—op. cit. p. '368 ff. 

3 Asitkumar Bandyopadhyaya —Bahgala Sahityer Itibritta, Vol I Calcw 
(2nd edn.), 1963. p. 80. ' 

T/Junf 3 i^ 6 JayadCVa S Birth P lacc ’’ in Amrita Bazar Patrika. £alcuti 



s 


HISTORY 


91 




district on the river Ajoy, where an annual festival of the Bduls 
and Sahajivd Vaishnavas takes place on the Poush-Saiiikranti day 
(middle of January). The fair held in the memory of the poet is 
quite old. But there is no definite information about the exact 
time from when the fair started. So the evidence of this old 
fair of Bduls and Bairdgis cannot be taken as a conclusive evidence 
in support of Jaydev-Kenduli’s claim to be regarded as Jayadeva’s 
Kendubilva. For the present the question about Jayadeva’s place 
of birth and residence must remain an open question. 1 The cir¬ 
cumstantial evidence of Jayadeva’s status as a court poet of Laksh¬ 
manasena cannot be taken as the final proof of Jayadeva’s 
Bengalihood. 

""^fciyadeva was a Panchopasak Smarta Brahmin who had equal 
devotion towards Siva, Sakti and Vishnu cults and wrote equally 
well on the cults of Siva and Sakti, 2 as also about the value of 
submissiveness, devotion and ecstatic love associated with the 
Vaishnava Bhakti cult. Popularly, Jayadeva is believed to have been 
a precursor of Gaudiya Vaishnava Bhakti-dharma of Chaitanya- 
deva and as such had been a believer in the principle of ecstatic 
love as personified by Radha and Krishna. The most important 
work of Jayadeva, viz. the Gita-Govinda revolves round the theme 
of # ecstatic love of Radha and Krishna. Chaitanya made this 
book a gospel of Gaudiya Vaishnava Bhakti-dharma and the 
Gaudiya Vaishnavas made Jayadeva a saint poet and an evan¬ 
gelist of Gaudiya Vaishnava Bhakti-dharma, which Jayadeva was 
not. Jayadeva probably wrote his Gita-Govinda at the request 
of a Vaishnava patron—possibly, Lakshmanasena. 

The old^and devout Vaishnava Lakshmanasena’s rule in West 
Bengal was coming to an end by A. D. 1200. During the dry 
season of the yegr 1201 a cavalry led by Malik Iktiaruddin 
Muhammad bin Bakhtyar Khilji, a Turkish free-lance operator, 
who had established himself in Bihar in the previous year, was 
marching from Bihar-shariff towards Navadwip in Nadia where 
Lakshmanasena was camping at that time. On his way from 
Bihar-shariff Muhammad Bakhtyar crossed the Ganges near Raj- 


Last days of 
Lakshmanasena 
& rise of the 
Turko-Afghan 
powers 


1 Sukumar Sen —Baiigdla Sahityer Itihas, Vol. I, Fart I. Calcutta (3rd 
edn.), 1959. pp. 40-1. 

M. M. Chakravarti—‘Sanskrit Literature in Bengal During the Sena 
Rule’, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ 1906, 
pp. 160-5; Niharranjan Ray—op. cit. p. 755; R. C.' Majumdar (eel.)— 
op cit. p. 368; Asitkumar Bandyopadhyaya—op. cit. pp. 78-9. 

2 * Niharranjan Ray—op. cit. pp. 674 8c 751-2 and Asitkumar Bandyo- 

patthfyaya—op. cit. p. 91. 




92 


BIRBIJUM 


mahal and then proceeded through Santal Parganas and Birbhum 
towards Nadia. 1 2 How he took Nadia by surprise, how the old 
king Lakshmanasena took flight to East Bengal and how Bakhtyar 
turned towards Gauda-LakshmanavatT will be narrated shortly.' 
It will be sufficient to note here that Bakhtyar did not proceed 
towards Nadia by conquering the lands or the tracts on his march, 
nor did he set up any administration on the lands through which 
he marched by supplanting the former administration. Had he 
done so, he would not have any necessity to send an army under 
the command of Muhammad Sheran and Ahmad Sheran towards 
Lakhnor, in modern Birbhum district, four years after the con¬ 
quest of Gauda, in A.D. 1206. 3 4 From this evidence it seems that 
a sizeable portion of north Radha was under the effective admi^e^ 
tration of some feudatory chiefs or vassals or officials of the former 
Sena kings, even after the flight of Lakshmanasena from West 
Bengal. It also seems that the official who had his seat at 
Lakhnor* was of some significance, since a force had to be sent 
to subdue him. But then, even after this expedition, probably not 
all the Hindu feudatory chiefs and vassals and former officials 
of the Senas were properly subdued. In A.D. 1211 Bakhtyar 
sent Ali Mardan to annex the territory between Devkote and 
Lakhnor to establish a proper administrative machinery. 5 Yet, in 
A.D. 1214 Sultan Ghiyasuddin Twaz Khilji had to make an 
expedition to Lakhnor to establish firmly the Turkish authority. 
But this expedition was mainly against the Gaiiga kings of Orissa 1 
who had advanced well up to Lakhnor in the north during the 


1 According to Rakhaldas Bandyopadliyaya (Bangalar Itifuis, Vol. I. 
Calcutta, 1321 B.S. pp. 322-6), it is difficult to believe Minhaj’s story - 
in the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri about Bakhtyar’s invasion- According to him, 
Lakshmanasena was not alive in A.D. 1201; his son Kesavasena or 
Madhavasena was possibly the ruling Sena king then. Minhaj’s Rai 
Lakshmania, therefore, could not have been Lakshmanasena. Secondly, 
where was the Nudia Minhaj speaks of; it is very difficult to identify 
Minhaj’s Nudia with Navadwipa. Thirdly, Nudia or Navadwipa had 
never been the Sena capital nor even the secondary capital. So a- king 
emperor could not have been relaxing in such a manner in an unfortified 
town, as has been described by Minhaj. Bakhtyar must have frightened 
away a Sena viceroy stationed at Nudia or Navadwipa. R. C. Majumdar 

(Bahgala Dcser Itihas, Calcutta, 2nd edn., 1356 B.S. pp. 97-100) also 
echoes R. D. Banerji’s suspicion, without however challenging the 
veracity of Minhaj’s account. He, however, maintains that Bakhtyar’s 
raid of Nudia was a maraudering raid rather than an invasion for 
conquest. 

2 Jadunath Sarkar (cd.)—History of Bengal, Vol. II. Dacca, 1948. pp. 5-6. 

3 ibid. p. 10. 

4 About the identification of the place Lakhnor see later. 

3 J. N. Sarkar—op. cit. p. 10. 


HISTORY 

•j 

power-vacuum created after the flight of Lakshmanasena. But 
Ghiyasuddin probably could not drive them out from the southern 
fringes of the Birbhum district 1 2 3 4 and the Oriya king possibly 
enjoyed the allegiance of some of the Hindu feudatory chiefs and 
former officials*of the Senas still holding out in some sparsely 
populated pockets in the district. Some of these late 12th and 
early 13th century Hindu chieftains and feudatory kings are still 
alive in the legends and folk-memory in the Birbhum district. 

There is a village called Kochujor (J.L. No. 30) in Suri police 
station area. The legend is that during the 12th century here 
reigned a local king named Rudrasaran Ray.' Another legend 
says that the local king of Lakhnor who ruled over a large part 
present district, during the turn of the century, was one 
Kshatriya ruler called BTrsirhha and that it was he who was 
defeated by Sultan Ghiyasuddin ’Iwaz in A.D. 1214.* Another 
legend connects scions of the Sena family with the extensive ruins 
found in BTmagar in Murarai police station. Nothing very 
definite is known about these legendary kings. 

In the 13th century A.D. parts of the area now known as the p^rTod^ 
district Birbhum probably passed under Muslim rule. The town 
of* Lakhnor, regarded by most historians to have been situated 
within the boundaries of the present district seems to have been 
an important frontier outpost of the Muslim rulers since the early 
days of the Turkish conquest of western Bengal. During the first 
decade of the 13th century Muhammad Bakhtyar Khilji sent an 
expedition against the Hindu kings of Orissa. The name Lakhnor 
features in*the chronicles of this campaign. “Shortly before his 
Tibet expedition he (Muhammad Bakhtyar Khilji) sent Muhammad 
Sheran and his brother Ahmad Sheran of his own tribe in com¬ 
mand of an army towards Lakhnor (Nagar in the Birbhum dis¬ 
trict), and Jajjjagar (kingdom of Orissa). This was intended to 
keep the Hindus south of the Ganges busy, and perhaps to annex 
the Radh region permanently.” 5 

There seems to be some uncertainty about the identification of 


1 According to Gaurihar Mitra (op. cit. pp. 63-4), the expedition of 
Ghiyasuddin ’Iwaz was directed against a king called BTrsirhha who was 
of course defeated. 

2 J. N. Sarkar (ed.)—op. cit. pp. 21-2. 

3 Gaurihar Mitra—op. cit. p. 62; and Asok Mitra—op. cit. p. 144. 

4 .Gaurihar Mitra—op. cit. pp. 63-4. 

5 J. "Sarkar (ed.)—The History of Bengal, Vol. II. Dacca, 1948. p. 10. 


1 


BTRBHUM 

o 

the place name of Lakhnor. In the Tabaqdt-i-N&siri it is men¬ 
tioned that Ghiyasuddin ’Iwaz, who ruled in Bengal from A.D. 
1211 to 1226, had an embankment built from Lakhnawati to 
Devkot in (Dinajpur) on the one side and Lakhnor on the other 
and Stewart advanced the view that Lakhnor shopld be identified 
with Nagar, the old capital of Birbhum. 1 But this was not 
acceptable to Blochmann who suggested that it was more likely 
that the place referred to was Lakarakund, near Dubrajpur. 2 
Monmohan Chakravarti, however, rejected both identifications on 
the argument that as Lakhnor appears to have been situated in 
low country, inundated by floods from time to time, for which an 
embankment was necessary it could not be identified with any 
of the two places suggested above, both of which are on hist 
rocky ground. 3 

More recent and authoritative opinion, however, goes back to 
the theory that Lakhnor could be none other than Nagar, the old 
capital of Birbhum. J. N. Sarkar, accepting the arguments of 
N. K. Bhattasali, 4 5 writes: “There is hardly any difference of 
opinion among scholars that Lakhnor of the Muslim writers was 
situated somewhere near the ancient town of Nagar in the 
Birbhum district. Blochmann’s Lakarkuda in Birbhum is to be 
definitely rejected in favour of Nagar or Rajnagar, once perhaps 
the capital of some Hindu Rajah as the place meant by Lakhnor, 

(Lakaur, Langaur, variants in the text of Ndsiri ).Bhattasali 

discusses the question of identification of Lakhnor with Nagar 
very ably, and his opinion I accept as accurate.” 3 

It seems, as has already been pointed out, that for several 
centuries after the advent of the Turkish rulers in Bengal, the 
tract of land comprising the present district of Birbhum appears 
to have been relatively free from the control of Turko-Afghan 
overlords and the country is said to have been ruled by Hindu 
chiefs, known as the BTr Rajas. O’Malley cites a reference from 
the Brahmanda section of the Bhavishya Parana^ where a des¬ 
cription of the forest-clad tract of land and its inhabitants is 
given. The area seems to have been divided into two parts, 

1 L. S. S. O’Malley — Bengal District Gazetteers : Birbhum^ Calcutta, 

1910. p. 10. 

3 H. Blochmann — Contributions to the Geography and History of Bengal, 
Part I. J.A.S.B. 1873. pp. 211-12. 

3 See ‘Certain Disputed or Doubtful Events in the History of Bengal’ in 
J.A.S.B., Vol. IV, No. 4. April 1908. p. 153. 

* The reference is to Bhattasali's article on the New Saktipur Grant of 
Lakshmanasena. J.R.A.S. 1935. 

5 J. N. Sarkar — op. cit. p. 37. 




HISTORY 

« 

4 

Narikanda, which lay to the west of the Bhagirathi and north of 
the Dwarakeswari river. It extended along the Panchakuta hills 
on the west and approached Kikata on the north. In this district 
was situated the celebrated shrine of Baidyanath. The other 
division was known as Virabhumi which was eminent for the 
shrine of Bakre’swara. Among the principal rivers of this area 
was the Ajaya. O’Malley concludes that from this account we 
can gather that Nagar was the capital of the Hindu rulers and 
the country was known as Viradesa or Virabhumi, the modern 
Birbhum. 

An account of the Hindu Rajas of Birbhum is available from 
a chronicle, the authenticity of which, however, cannot be verified 
^owing to the absence of any corroborating evidence. 1 It is said 
thgit two brothers, Bir Singh and Chaitanya Singh, came to 
Birbhum from somewhere in the northwest and founded their 
capitals in two villages which are supposed to be still bearing 
their names (Birsinghpur, old J.L. No. 334, and Chaitanyapur. old 
J.L. No. 336, in the police station of Jajnagar). Bir Singh is 
credited to have been a powerful ruler with a number of smaller 
chieftains and landlords under him. Ruins of palaces, forts and 
tanks are still to be found in Birsinghpur, 6 miles west of Suri. 2 3 
Chaitanyapur is also known as Chaitanga and more popularly as 
KHatanga from which a pargana has taken its name.' 

Another reference that we get of Lakhnor is during the rule 
of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Twaz Khilji who reigned from A.D. 1213 
to 1227. Ghiyasuddin Twaz Khilji had come to the throne of 
Lakhnawati after rebelling against and overthrowing Ali Mardan 
Khilji. The early part of his reign is supported to have been 
occupied consolidating his authority in Lakhnawati. The 
Ganga Emperor AnangabhTma III (A.D. 1211-38) was his contem¬ 
porary ruler of Orfssa, whose celebrated general, Vishnu, invaded 
the Radha tract which was a sort of no man’s land at this time, 
though the Muslim rulers of Lakhnawati claimed Lakhnor in 
Birbhum as their frontier. 4 “At any rate that frontier post was 
seized by Vishnu who had carved out a frontier-march for him- 

1 A sunfmarized account of the main facts from this chronicle is given 
in the Final Report on the Survey and Settlement Operations - in the 
District of Birbhum (1924-1932), Calcutta 1937, pp. 10-11. Since there 
appear a number of anachronisms in this account, only the bare out¬ 
lines of the events regarding the founding of the Raj and its ultimate 
end is given here. 

2 loc. cit. 

3 loc. cit. 

4 *]. Sarkar — op. cit. pp. 21-22. 


96 


BIRBHUM 


self, south of Radh, having perhaps Jajpur (Jajnagar) on the 
VaitaranI river as the seat of his power.”' This event is said to 
have caused demoralization in the Muslim camp, and no im¬ 
mediate attempt was made by them to recover the lost ground. 
However, Sultan Ghiyasuddin set out on an expedition to recover 
Lakhnor probably in A.D. 1214 and this campaign turned out to 
be a protracted one. 1 2 3 The Chhatesvara instription claimed success 
for the Orissan general who in the ‘war with the Moon of Yavana 
kingdom--performed heroic deeds that baffled description’.'’ 
The testimony of Minhaj-i-Sirdj made the counter-claim that 
Lakhnor came into the possession of Sultan Ghiyasuddin (c. 611 
A.H./A.D. 1214-15) and that ‘elephants and large treasure fell into 
the hands’ of the Sultan, who ‘posted his own Amirs in the 
Places.’ 4 It is said that Ghiyasuddin Twaz Khilji succeeded not 
only in driving back the Orissan army but extended his southern 
frontier from the bank of the Ajay river to the bank of the 
Damodar and the borders of Vishnupur. J. N. Sarkar, however, 
does not accept the claim that the ruler of Jajnagar paid tribute 
to the Sultan, though he thinks that the Muslim army must have 
reached the south of the Damodar river as far as Katasin by this 
time, as mentioned in Minhaj-i-Sirdj. 5 J. N. Sarkar adds in a 
footnote, “I follow Rai Bahadur Monomohan Chakravarti who 
gives the date of the Chhatesvara inscription as c. 1220 A.D., and 
ascribes the successes described in this inscription as referring to 
the reign of AnangabhTma 111 of Orissa. Twaz was undoubtedly 
the Yavana King of this inscription. 6 Minhdj indirectly corrobo¬ 
rates to a Certain extent the testimony of Chhate-s'vara (sic.) 
inscription by a clear hint that Lakhnor had slipped out of the 
hands of the Muslims before Twaz claimed it for 1/imself and 
appointed his own officers there.” 7 

During the period of the next sixty years, lVom A.D. 1227 to 
1287, as many as fifteen rulers held authority over Lakhnawati 
in quick succession, and ten of them were governors of Bengal 
sent by the imperial Court of Delhi. As J. N. Sarkar has 
observed, “The history of this period is a sickening record of 
internal dissensions, usurpation and murders which the Court of 


1 loc. cit. 

2 loc. cit.. 

3 Quoted by J. N. Sarkar—loc. cit. 

4 loc. cit. 

5 loc. cit. 

6 J.A.S.B. LXXII. 1903. p. 119. 

7 J.A.S.B. 1903. pp. 118-20, Nasiri, Text. pp. 141-42; Banerji — Orissa 1; 
Basu, J.A.S.B. 189G, pp. 232-34. 


w 

* 


. HISTORY ^ 7 

Delhi after the death of Sultan lltutmish could not punish The 
seizure of the government of Lakhnawati was the highest ambition 
of the governors of neighbouring provinces, Bihar, Oudh, Kanauj 
and Kara-Manikpur ; because even after the loss of independence, 
Gaur-Lakhnawaii retained its status of a kingdom, and its posses¬ 
sion atone entitled a Malik to the coveted status of Malik-ush- 
Sharq or Lord of the East.” 1 

Of these rulers of Bengal, Tughral Tughan Khan is perhaps 
the best known, and he enjoyed a fairly long lease of power, for 
nine years (A.D. 1236-1245). Towards the close of his reign the 
Hindu ruler of Jajnagar made an expedition into Rat ha. 
‘‘Tughral Tughiin’s contemporary on the throne of Orissa was 
Ma Narasiriihadeva 1 who had succeeded his father Ananga- 
bhimadeva 111 about 1238 A.D. He seems to have taken 
advantage of the withdrawal of the army and fleet of Lakhnawati 
to distant Kara in the previous year to lead an expedition into 
Radh and the frontiers of Vahga. In the campaigning season 
of 1242 he avoided rousing the suspicions of the Turks of 
Southern Radh, strongly posted in Nagar in the Birbhum dis¬ 
trict, and sought easier conquests east of the river Bhagirathi. 
This tract might have been occasionally raided during the period 
of the Khilji ascendancy, but no Muslim army had visited it 
after the death of Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji (1227 A.D.). 
Saptagram (Satgaon) was still unsubdued and the district of 
Nadia was strewn with semi-independent Hindu Rajas. These 
were little likely to offer any opposition to the northward expan¬ 
sion of the mighty Hindu power of Orissa which was their only 
safeguard against the rapacity of the Turks. Tughan slept over 
this dangerous aggression of Orissa on his immediate frontier 
till the emboldened enemy actually began ravaging his- own 
possessions on the Lakhnor side in the dry season of 1243- •• 
(Tughral) could not take the field to repel the Hindu invasion 
till the month* of Shawwal 641 A.H. (mid March, A.D. 1244) 
when. Minhaj-i-Siraj, the historian, also joined in this holy war. 
The army of Tugharal Tughan marched along the broad highway 
of ’iwaz as far as Lakhnor, and pushed further south-east after 
having crossed the rivers A jay and Damodar.. The army of 
Orissa retreated without fighting to their frontier fortress of 
Katasin, in a region full of jungle and cane bushes suited for 
ambush and surprise. 


i ibi<i. f>. 42. 


7 



=s 


98 BIRBHUM 

c 

“On Saturday morning 6th of Ziqadah 641 (16th April 1244) 
the Turks delivered an assault on the fort of Katasin, carried 
two ditches after hard fighting and put the Hindus to flight 
who left some elephants behind. As it was the time of mid-day 
meal, Tughral Tughan recalled his troops from the assault and 
ordered that nobody should vex the elephants which were 
evidently left in their place on the other side of the second ditch. 
The soldiers of the army of Islam were busy in preparing or 
eating their meals. A party of Orissa soldiers made a sortie 
from the direction of the fort to take away the elephants they 
had left behind in the morning; and simultaneously a small 
detachment of two hundred footmen and fifty sawdrs stole their 
way from behind a cane-jungle and rushed upon the rear of 
Muslim army. The panic spread to the whole army of Tughral 
Tughan Khan. At any rate the army of Orissa kept up a hot 
pursuit, and the Turks did not make a stand even in their own 
fort of Lakhnor, 70 miles north-west of Katasin.” 1 

Thus, when the situation was so critical, Tughan Khan on 
his return from Katasin sent Sharf-ul-Mulkal-Ashari and Quzi 
Jalaluddin Kashani to Delhi to seek military assistance. As a 
result, the governors of Kara-Manikpur and of Oudh were des¬ 
patched in aid of Tughan Khan, but by that time the Raja of 
Jajnagar had captured Lakhnor after routing and killing the 
local fiefholder. However, when the combined forces of Oudh 
and Kara-Manikpur reached the Rajmahal hills, the army of 
Orissa withdrew its siege of Lakhnawati. Around this time, 
however, Malik Tamar Khan, governor of Oudh, fell out with 
Tughan Khan, and on his turn laid siege on the city of 
Lakhnawati. Tughan Khan had the worst of the skirmishes that 
followed, and in a subsequent treaty (which was negotiated by 
the historian Minhdj-i-Sirdj himself) Tughan Khan had to 
relinquish his claim on Lakhnawati and Bihar to Malik Tamar 
Khan, and was allowed to proceed to the imperial Court with 
his treasure and followers. 2 

During the middle of the 13th century Sultan Mughisuddin 
Tughral (A.D. 1268-81) was the last and greatest of the ^success- 
ful Mamluks who rose from the position of a household "slave to 
independent sovereignty at Lakhnawati in the time of Sultan 
Ghiyasuddin Balban. Balban could not, to begin with, keep a 
close'watch on Bengal because of his preoccupation with the 


1 ibid. pp. 48-49. 

2 ibid. pp. 48-49. 


HISTORY 


Mongol incursions in 

of the imperial sultan from Delhi, 1 g as t he 

the allegiance to the imperial court and set h «P^ 

independent chief at Lakhnawati. According to Baran.it. ^ 

i-Firuzshahi ), Sijltan Balban lost his sleep and PP ached 

news of Tughral’s assumption of sovereignty in Bengal reached 

hhru 1 Balban probably sent his first expedmon against Tughral 

frnm Oudh in 1278. The culminating stage of that -a p g 
from Oudh in la/o following account, 

has been given by J. N. Sar “ r fl f war . boa ts to 

“Meanwhile, Tughral had advanced with Ins fleet ot 

the mouth of the river Sarju, more with a view torching! ^ 

,, p imnpriHlists than to offering tight. P 

movements of the impenal st R .. started from Oudh 

of the lateness of the season Sultan Balban stdrtea , 

vdth the main army, and Bughra Khan (his son) wa dis . 

to bring up the rear. When the In 

puted, Tughral sailed away or ^ SuUan pushed £orward> 

the rains began (June 1280), The fleet of boats 

callous to the loss ^ which. 

(baira/Hi) was t0 P verv slowly 0 n account of mud and 
however, could advance ve y - y , dec m e d on the 

ferocity of the I n. lug y ^ ^ journey from 

Jajnagar, and halted at y P other side Qf the 

ff EE ErEs w r 1 .£ 

Of Jajnagar ( in ° nss f>- ^ E Eu st 1280 AD„ and he halted 
perhaps before the middle ot August 1280 • > 

there for some time for ‘arming and reorganisi g > „ 2 

there tor so rains (middle of September 1280). 

perhaps till suit of Tughral during the rainy season 

Balban pressed on h P jajnagar. Tughral who was 

of the next year (1281) towaias J 1 ° advanced 

again on his flight from Jajnagar was surprised by the advanced 

r^TbTTN. Sarkar-op. cit. p. 6i. 
a ibit^. ^>p. 63 * 4 * 




c 


100 birbhum 

c 

guards of Balban’s army and was killed. Balban captured 
Lakhnawati and set up his youngest son Bughra Khan as the 
governor of Bengal. 1 

A general feature of the history of the house of the Balbans 
in Bengal (A.D. 1286-1328) was that Bengal enjoyed a fairly 
long respite from Khilji and Tughlaq aggressions. “Therefore 
the rulers of the House of Balban in Bengal, finding no scope 
for warlike enterprises westward, concentrated their energy and 
resources in subduing the small Hindu principalities which till 
then were holding their own against Muslim domination.” 2 

A new chapter in the history of Bengal was opened with the 
accession of Ilyas Shah to the throne of Lakhnawati, under the 
title Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in 1342. During his reign the Del^i 
Sultan Firuz Tughlaq made an invasion of Bengal. Certain 
areas adjacent to the district of Birbhum feature in the chronicles 
of the campaign. 3 Although victory was claimed by the 
Imperialists, the campaign in effect was infructuous. The Bengal 
Sultan was not dislodged from his throne and the dynasty con¬ 
tinued till it was overthrown by Raja Ganesh (A.D. 1409-10). 

After the return of the later Ilyas Shahis to power, we find 
two inscriptions in Bara (Balanagar) in the district of Birbhum, 
one dating from the reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah (A.D. 
1450) and another of Ruknuddin Barbak Shah (A.D. 1459) which 
show that this area was under their rule. 4 

We get evidence that the eastern portion of the district near 
the Bhagirathi river was subject to Muslim rule during the next 
era, i.e. the Husain Shahi period. Traces of an old Badshahi 
road which ran from Lakhnawati to Mangalkot (just across the 
south-eastern border of the district) and then to Burdwan and 
Satgaon are still to be found and near it an Arabic inscription 
has been found referring to the digging of a well by king Husain 
Shah in A.D. 1560. 5 

When Sher Shah opened his campaign in A.Dj 1536 for the 
capture of Bengal, it is said that he took a route which was 
through the present district of Birbhum. J. N. Sarkar has shown 


1 ibid. p. 67. 

2 ibid. p. 68. 

2 An account of this campaign and its effect on the westernmost parts of 
Bengal appears in West Bengal District Gazetteers: Bankura. Calcutta 
1968. p. 78-80. 

1 ‘Table of Find-spots of Inscriptions in Bengal’ in Shamsuddin Ahmed — 
Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. IV, Varendra Research Museum, Rajshahi, 
Bangladesh, 1960. 

5 J. A. S. B., 1861. p. 390, quoted by L.S.S.O ’Malley — op. cit. p. 


xx. 



102 


BIRBKUM 


“The name of the frontier mahall of Bharkundah in BTrbhum, 
mentioned above, seems to have been formerly extended to the 
whole of BTrbhum and the Santal Parganahs. In this extended 
sense, it is used in the TarTkh-i-DaudT on De Barros’ map of 
Bengal, and on Blaev’s map of India. In the latter, it is only 
given as Barcunda’, but in the former as ‘Reino de Barcunda’, 
extending from Ferrandus (a corruption of Bardwan) to Gorij, 
in which we recognize Garhi, the ‘key of Bengal’. 1 O ’Malley 
adds. Under Akbar the district as now constituted was divided 
among three Sarkars, viz., a northern section in Audumbar, a 
central-eastern section in Sharifabad, and the rest of the district 
in Mandaran. The Sarkar last named included parganas 
Birbhum and Nagar, the last of which had a large revenue 
(4,025,620 dams or Rs. 1,00.640) and evidently had an extensive 
area. In Sarkar Audumbar one inahal with a considerable 
revenue was called Mudesar, which is suspected to be a corrup¬ 
tion of Mayureswar. a place on the bank of the Mor river with 
a well-known temple.” 2 

The empire founded by Sher Shah did not last long and with 
the death of his son, Islam Shah Sur in A.D. 1553, it began 
to disintegrate. Bengal was one of the first provinces to break 
off from the central authority. Muhammad Khan, the Sur 
viceroy of Bengal at that time, declared his independence. He 
was succeeded by his son Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah in A.D. 
1556. The Sur dynasty in Bengal came to an end in A.D. 1564 
when the Karr apis replaced them. Taj Khan was the first Sultan 
of this line, and was succeeded in A.D. 1565 by his brother 
Sulaiman Karrani. 

One of the most important events of the reign of Sulaiman 
Karrani was the annexation of Orissa. Tn Orissa, the power and 
authority of the Gajapati dynasty had started to decline, follow¬ 
ing the death of Pratap Rudra Dev. Finally, power was usurped 
by a minister of the name of Mukunda Dev. Tn 1565 Mukunda 
Dev assured emperor Akbar of his allegiance and agreed to send 
Ibrahim Sur (the rival of Muhammad Shah Adil, who had taken 
shelter with Mukunda Dev) to invade Bengal in case Sulaiman 
Karrani rose up in arms against the imperial authority. How- 
ever, in A.D. 1567-68, taking advantage of Akbar’s preoccupa¬ 
tion with the siege of Chitor, Sulaiman Karrani sent an expedition 
against Orissa under the command of his son, Bayazid. The 


1 ibid. p. 223. 

2 L, S. S. O’Malley — op. cit. p. 


12. 


- HISTORY 

officers of Mukunda Dev rose in IdLThim.Sulmmdn 

rebeUious^generals of Orissa 
“many of them along with Ibrahim Sur penshed at the 
hands of the Bengal troops and Orissa passed into e 

succeeded by his two sent^and 

out 2 once Jte. and a 

=S * ?■= 

Zrn,S • N. Sarkar. -Thu, in —■ "«»■ 

and nub Bengal no organic M»* P»«> “ 

^«S*S5Ksr 

An 1 S 76 (when the forces of Daua were nn<u y / f 

fter ad 1579 (when the military commander 
e^n more after A.u. 13/ we find nQ reference t o 

Akbar mutinied in Bengal and Bi ) lost t0 A kbar 

this district, and it may be presume • AD j600 its fate 

“rs is-- “ 

away m Ajmer. turbulent Pathans who 

viceroy 3 ... Usmaii, Sajawal 99th April 

has made a deceptive submission, rose m revolt On 29th April 

i^oo thev defeated an inferior imperial force led y 

r iS-Sn, u, 

forced the hand of Man singn prepara- 

Allahabad, halted for some weeks at » Near Sherpur 

Cd J".«“ «•, I- 02 F ' b ‘ 

“r. .0. .1,»mu.. -I »• 

~ L. s. S. O ’Malky — °P- cit - P- 12, 

2 OD.^cit. P- 1 ^ 9 ‘ . 

3 f N, Sarkar — op. cit. p. 213. 


104 


BIRBHUM 

w 


c 


* 


captive Bakhshi from threatened death at their hand.” The 

venue of this battle, Sherpur Atia, is situated in the east of the 
district. 1 

For some time after the Mughal conquest of Bengal, 
however, the effective control of the Mughals was confined to 
very narrow limits, within and around the capital city of 
Rajmahal, set up by Man Singh. 2 Jadunath Sarkar writes, “From 
the Baharistan, we get a fair idea of the prominent zamindars 
who flourished in Bengal at the beginning of Jahangir’s reign. 
On the west, three noted zamindars are mentioned whose terri¬ 
tories lay adjacent to one another—Bir Hamir, holding sway, 
in Birbhum and Bankura, Shams Khan in Pachet on the south¬ 
west, and Salim Khan in Hijli, to the south-east of Pachet. At 1 
of them seem to have tendered only nominal submission to 
s am Khan. ! The position of these zamindars was, however, 
ormalised in 1608, when Islam Khan “sent a force of 2000 
cavalry and 4000 musketeers, under the command of Shaikh 
Kamal, to subdue Bir Hamir, Shams Khan-and Salim Khan, the 
zamindars of Birbhum, Pachet and Hijli respectively. Bir Hamir 
not only submitted without resistance but led the Mughal com¬ 
mander into the territory of Shams Khan of Pachet, and tried 
to persuade him to follow suit. Shams Khan, however, fought 
hard for a fortnight, but was at last forced to submit when the 
Mughal occupied the skirts of the Darni hill and threatened to 
storm his fortified post on its top. Next came the turn of Salim 
han, who accepted the imperial vassalage without fighting.” 4 
Some time after the three zamindars’ personal submission, Islam 

* ha "f 1 Alaipur “ dealt with them very leniently, allowed them 
to hold their own territories as jagirs, and exempted ihem from 
personal service.” 5 

Islam Khan was succeeded by his brother Qasim Khan in 
A.D. 1613. One of the important events of the latter’s rule was 
a punitive campaign against Bir Hamir, Shams Khan, Bahadur 
Khan (who was the nephew and successor of Salim Khan), and 
irbhan, the zamindars of Birbhum, Pachet, Hijli and Chandra- 
kona .. respectively. These vassals who had not rendered per¬ 
sonal service but had continued to be loyal in the time of Islam 
han, appa rently fell off from their vassalage taking advantage 

1 L. S. S. O ’Malley —loc. cit. 

2 J. N. Sarkar — op. cit. p. 2 ok 

3 ibid. p. 036. 1 ' 

4 ibid. p. 249. 

J ibid, p. 250. o ^ 




c 


L 


<L 


C- 


HISTORY 


105 


of the weakness and lack of vigilance displayed by the new 
governor, and it became necessary to force them again into sub¬ 
mission. Though the expedition directed against Bir Hamir and 
Shams Khan was conducted by an experienced officer. Shaikh 
Kamal, it was* not adequately equipped owing to Qasim Khan s 
personal antipathy against the Shaikh, and so it does not appear 

to have led to any tangible result.”' 

Thus it seems that this area and the jungle terrain of the 
western border of Bengal continued to enjoy some measure of 
independence during the time of the Great Mughals. Not much 
evidence of the history of this area is available till the time of 
the revolt of Prince Shuja, the son of Shah Jahan, and the arrival 
erf Mir Jumla in Bengal at the beginning of A.D. 1659. “Mir 
Jhmla arrived at Patna about 22nd February, 8 days after Shuja s 
departure from that city (to Rajmahal), frustrated Shuja’s plan 
of making a stand at Mungir (19th Feb.—6th March) and at 
Rangamati (10th-24th March)—first, by making a detour through 
the Kharagpur hills with the help of Raja Bahroz and occupying 
Mungir (9th March), and, again outflanking Shuja by another 
detour through Jharkhand with the assistance of Khwaja Kamfil 
Afghan, zamindar of Birbhum, and passing through Suri 
(28th March). Though his army was depleted by the defection 
of 5000 Rajputs and two Muhammadan generals (end of March) 
on account of the false rumours of Dara s victory at Ajmir 
(Deorai), Mir Jumla steadily advanced against Shuja, and en¬ 
camped on the bank of the Ganges at Belghata, only 30 miles 
from Shuja’s base at Rajmahal. The prince evacuated Rajmahal 
on 4th April, made Tanda... his head-quarters and collected the 
flotilla of Bengal. Mir Jumla immediately occupied Rajmahal 
(13th April); the .entire country on the west bank of the Ganges 
from Rajmahal to FTughli now passed into the hands of the 
imperialists.” 2 Thus, one may presume that the area consisting 
of the preseift district of Birbhum came withtin the fold of the 
Mughal central authority at this time. 

The Badshahi road that runs through the district appears to 
have become the scene of activities again at the time of the 
revolt of Shova Singh and Rahim Shah in A.D. 1696, when the 
rebel army marched from Midnapur to Rajmahal. Defeated at 
Bhagwangola, Rahim Shah fled to Burdwan, while the new Viceroy, 
Prince Azim-us-Shah (successor of Ibrahim Khan, whom the 


106 


BIRBH'JM 


emperor Aurangzeb had recalled owing to his failure to curb 
the rebels—- Ed.), moved slowly over this road from Rajmahal 
to Burdwan being joined en route by the various zamindars and 
faujdars. On the outskirts of Burdwan, he met the forces of 
Rahim Shah, who was defeated and killed; and With his death 
the revolt came to an end.” 1 

During the rule of the later Mughals, the Pathan zamindars of 
Birbhum became powerful local chiefs, and appear to have 
tendered only nominal allegiance to the Subahdars of Bengal. 
A brief outline of the history of the fortunes of this family of 
rulers will be given presently, but before that, two notable occur¬ 
rences after Aurangzeb’s death deserve mention. Of the great 
or old historical zamindars of Bengal that survived upto MurshiH 
Quli’s time, two were preserved by him—the contiguous terri¬ 
tories of Birbhum (under Asadullah Khan) and Vishnupur (under 
the Malla Rajas). 2 

At the time of Shuja-ud-din’s rule (Murshid Quli’s son-in-law), 
the zamindar of Birbhum, Badi-uz-Zaman (son of Asadullah Khan) 
rose up in rebellion, which was quickly put down. “Badi’-uz- 
Zaman, the Afghan zamindar of Birbhum, had also to feel the 
weight of the Nawab’s authority. Emboldened by the natural 
defences of hillocks and jungles surrounding his territory, the 
Birbhum zamindar had ceased to send to the Nawab the revenue 
of 1,400,000 bights of cultivated lands and rose in insurrection 
against him in A.D. 1736. Sarfaraz under orders of the Nawab 
sent a large army into Birbhum under the command of Mir Sharf- 
ud-din, the second Paymaster-General, and Khwaja Basant... 
Alivardi, the nmb mzim of Bihar, also marched from Patna 
against the zamindar at head of a large force. Badi’-uz-Zaman 
readily tendered his submission, and accompanied the Bengal 
troops to Murshidabad to show his respect to Sarfaraz and the 
Nawab. Alivardi soon returned to Patna. Through the inter¬ 
cession of Mir Sharf-ud-din, Badi’-uz-Zaman was granted an inter¬ 
view by Shuja-ud-din, who pardoned his offences and permittee 
him to return to Birbhum on his promising an annual remittance 
of three lakhs of rupees to the Nawab, besides the standard revenue 
due from him and also proper obedience to his orders.” 3 

The relatively peaceful life of the area was disturbed in 
A.D. 1741, when the Maratha invasions began, and the incursions 


1 L. S. S. O ’Malley — loc. cit. 

2 J. N. Sarkar — op. cit. p. 415. 

3 ibid. pp. 427-28. 



HISTORY 


107 


continued till the middle forties of the 18th century. From the 
evidence given in the Siyar-ul-MuWkharin , 1 we know that at one 
time the whole of Birbhum appears to have been held by them 
with the rest of the country west of the Ganges from Rajmahal 
on the north tB Midnapur on the south, while only Murshidabad 
and the country east and north of the Ganges remained in the 
possession of Alivardi Khan. Writing about the Maratha raids 
in Birbhum and neighbouring areas, W. E. Hunter said— The 
Marathas fell with their heaviest weight upon the border princi¬ 
palities of Birbhum and Bishnupur. Tribute, free quarters, forced 
services, exactions of a hundred sorts, reduced the once powerful 
frontier houses to poverty; and their tenantry fled from a country 
in which the peasant had become a mere machine for growing 
food for the soldier. Burdwan not only lay further inland, but its 
marshy and river-intersected surface afforded a less tempting field 
for cavalry, and a better shelter for the people. The Marathas 
spent their energy in plundering the intervening frontier tracts of 
Birbhum and Bishnupur, where the dry soil and fine undulating 
surface afforded precisely the riding-ground which their cavalry 
loved. There they could harry the villagers exhaustively and in 

detail by means of small parties.” 2 3 
•During the time of the Maratha invasions, the district was held 
by a line of Afghan zamindars who were practically independent. 
It would be relevant to trace in brief outline, the history of this 
family before concluding the history of the district during the medi¬ 
eval period. As has been mentioned earlier, the ruler of Birbhum 
at the beginning of the century was Asadulla Khan, whose power 
and prestige were acknowledged in the Rwz-us-Salatin in the 
following manner, “The zamindars of Birbhum and Bishnupur, 
being protected by dense forests, mountains and hills, did not 
personally appear before the Nawab, but deputed instead their 
agents to carry on transactions on their behalf, and through them 
used to pay in the usual tributes, presents and gifts. In consi¬ 
deration of the fact that Asad-ulla, zamindar of Birbhum, was a 
pious and saintly person and had bestowed half of his property 
as madad-i-mash grants on learned, pious and saintly persons, 
and had fixed daily doles of charity for the poor and The indigent, 
the Khan refrained from molesting him.” 1 

Asadulla Khan was succeeded by his son, Badi-uz-Zaman-Khan, 


i Cited in L.S.S.O ’Malley — op. cit. p. 13. 

■i Quoted by L. S. S. O ’Malley — loc. cit. 

3 Quoted by L. S. S. O ’Malley — loc. cit. 


108 


BIRBHUM 


whose attempted rebellion against Shuja-ud-din has been men¬ 
tioned earlier. Tn spite of the check on his power effected by 
the Nawab, his power continued to grow. About him, the Siyar 
had this to say, “Among the zamindars in the kingdom of Bengal 
none was so near neighbour to the city of Murshida'bad its capital, 
as the Raja of Birbhum, and none so powerful, whether by the 
number of his troops or by his personal character for bravery. 
He likewise piqued himself upon a sense of humour and a deli¬ 
cacy of sentiments, qualifications very extraordinary in a zamin- 
dar. ... The zamindar, Badi-ul-Zaman Khan, who went by the 
name of Diwanji, had alaways been in his youth, as he was now 
even in his riper years, extremely addicted to his ease and to his 
pleasures; and it was to enjoy himself he had left the manage¬ 
ment of his dominions to Ali Naki Khan, the most capable of 
his sons, his whole ambition being to pass his days in quiet 
and enjoyment. But this hopeful son of his dying in the flower 
of his age, the father, who was alerady disgusted with the world, 
and deeply affected by the total ruin that had befallen Ali Vardi 
Khan’s family, to which he was extremely attached, put on a 
fakir’s garb and placing at the head of his domininons Asad 
Zaman Khan, another son of his,... he retired again out of the 
tumult of affairs and seemed pleased with nothing but the con¬ 
versation of fakirs, and with retirement and tranquillity.” 1 With 
the reign of Asad-ul-Zaman, we pass on to a sequence of events 
that fall within the history of the modem period. 

The last of the independent Nawabs of Birbhum, Asad-ul-Zaman 
got involved with Anglo-French rivalry in Bengal, and got on 
the wrong side of the British immediately after the^Battle of 
Plassey, thus hastening the process of the dissolution of the- 
Birbhum Raj. The small band of Frenchmen That had assisted 
Siraj-ud-daula in Plassey in A.D. 1757 retreated into Birbhum 
following the defeat in battle and got refuge there. In December 
1757, Asad-ul-Zaman got news of the English advance towards 
his territory in pursuit of the French and got alarmed on his own 
account, because of the protection he had granted to the French 
party earlier that year. He made a gesture of apprehending them 
and handing them over to the British force, but the attempt was 
not entirely successful. 2 

Actual hostilities between the Raja of Birbhum and the British 
broke out in A.D. 1760, when the former, along with other im- 

1 Quoted by L.S.S. O’Malley— op. cit. p. v 

3 L.S.S. O’Malley — op. cit. p. 15. 



/ 


HISTORY 


109 


oortmit neighbouring zamindars, sent an invitation to the Mughal 
Cro" Shah Alam to come to Bengal and then -rch aga.ns 
the British with the help of his ‘loyal subjects. In April 1 61 
Shah Alam advanced into the district, closely purused by the 
joint forces of-Miran (son of Mir Jafar) and Major Caillaud the 
conmmander of the East India Company’s » nstead o 
following the original plan of marchmg through Nagar ^d Sun 
towards Murshidabad which was unprotected the Emperor p o 
ceeded towards Burdwan via Lakarakund. He found his way 
blocked by Miran and Caillaud, and retreated thus g.vmg up 
the plan of suprising and capturing Murshidabad. The defiance 

and resistance shown by the Birbhum Raja a S« inst the 

and the Nawab of Bengal quickly broke down after the departure 

ot Shah Alam from Bengal. At the end of t y ( ’ 

Emperor having left the Province, the English and the Na»ab 
(of ^Bengal) preceeded against the Raja of Birbhum, one body 
advancing 'under Captain Whyte from Midnapor. w lie Mn 
Kaism Ali Khan and his Armenian general Ghurghm K a 
marched from Murshidabad with a considerable force, supported 
by a detachment under Major Yorke. Asad Zaman Khan de 
puled the government of his territory to his lather as Dtwan, a 
faking the field with 5,000 horse and 20,000 foot, entrenched hi - 
si in a difficult part of the country near Kherwah. His posi¬ 
tion being a strong one. Major Yorke directed Captain Whyte to 
take a circuitous route to the north-west and tall upon the rear 
of the Birbhum troops, while he engaged their attention in front 
with his own and the Nawab's troops. This duty Captain Whyte 
executed with such celerity, that he completely surprised the enemy 
who, confident of the strength of their position, never anticipated 
the possibility of itny attack in the rear,’ and were ignorant of the 
approach of the British troops until they found them in die centre 
of their camp. They were seized with panic and thrown into 
confusion; and the sound of the firing serving as a signal for 
Captain Yorke, he advanced with his detachment, followed at 
some distance by Mir Kasim Khan’s troops and carried the fines 
without difficulty. The enemy were completely defeated and fled 
in all directions after suffering very heavy loss. .This victory 
effectually broke the power of the Birbhum Raja, whose tcr ™' r A 
as well as that of Burdwan, was speedily subdued and pacified. 


i loc. cit. 

2 * loc. fit. 

3 ibfd. pp. 


i5‘ l6 - 


I 


110 


4 . 

BIRBHUM 

* 


The early period of British administration in Birbhum was a 
time of trouble and uncertainty. The affairs of the district were 
administered from Murshidabad for a period of twenty years 
aftei the grant of the Diwani to the East India Company by the 
Mughal Emperor in A.D. 1765. In the year 1785, the Collector of 
Murshidabad complained to the Goverment of the unsettled state 
of afTairs in Birbhum, and asked for a reinforcement of additional * 
troops to enable him to maintain order. Following this appeal, 
Birbhum along with Vishnupur was formed into a separate dis¬ 
trict. In 1786 Mr. Foley was sent there as Collector and Magis¬ 
trate, and in the following year Mr. Sherburne succeeded him. For 
a time afterwards, the posts of Collector and Magistrate were 
separated, and they were held by different officers. 1 

The district headquarters were at Suri, and an Assistant, 
Mr. Hesilrige was posted at Vishnupur. In 1793, Vishnupur was 
separated from Birbhum and annexed to Burdwan. The Collec - 
torship of Birbhum was abolished in 1809, and the district was 
again administered from Murshidabad; an Assistant Collector 
remaining in charge at Suri. This arrangement continued till 
1820, when Birbhum was reinstated as a separate district and 
restored to its former size, with the exception of a few estates 
which were transferred to the Jungle Mahals. The area of 
the district diminished considerably again in 1855, when the area 
known as the Santal Paraganas was separated following the 
Santal uprising. 2 

The short summary of events regarding the administrative 
changes in the district needs to be kept in mind as a background 
to the actual course of events in the history of this area during 
the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century. 

In 1770, five years after the grant of the Diwani, the district 
was devastated by famine. The severity of this calamity has 
been extensively described by many historians and other writers, 
and its impact on the countryside was to be felt for a long time 
to come. In a report of February 1771, Mr. Higginson, the 
Supervisor of Birbhum, described the condition of the badly 
affected eastern parganas of the district in the following manner, 
“Truly concerned am I to acquaint you that the bad effects of 
the last famine appear in these places beyond description dread¬ 
ful. Many hundreds of villages are enetirely depopulated; and 




E. G. 
Bii'bhum 


Drake-Brockman 
(1898). p. x. 


— Notes 


011 the Early Administration 


of 




HISTORY 




111 


even in large towns there are not a fourth part of the houses in¬ 
habited. For want of ryots to cultivate the ground, there are 
immense tracts of a fine open country which remain wholly waste 
and unimproved.” He begged the Council to allow him to 
suspend the collection of revenue arrears from “the remaining 
poor ryots, who have so considerably suffered from the late famine, 
that by far the greatest part of them are rendered utterly incapable 
of paying them. By obliging them to sell their cattle and utensils 
for agriculture, a small portion might be recovered; but this would 
certainly be the means of their deserting the province, and pre¬ 
venting the cultivation for next year, which would be much more 
fatal to the revenue of the country than the whole loss of the 
balances.” 1 The Council replied, “Though we can by no means 
recede from the demands for mofussil balances due from your 
districts, yet we cannot but agree with you in the propriety of 
suspending them for the present, as continuing to harass the 
ryots for them at the present season would be attended with pre¬ 
judice to the ensuing year’s cultivation and collection. Should 
the approaching year, however, prove a prosperous one, we 
flatter ourselves an adjustment might be made for the recovery of 
these balances; and it is an object we must recommend to your 
attention in that event.”' 

*The most notable account of the famine of 1770 along with a 
penetrating analysis of the reasons behind it appears in Hunter s 
Annals of Rural Bengal. According to Hunter, the calamity 
affected the history of the country for the next forty years. “In 
the cold weather of 1769 Bengal was visited by a famine whose 
ravages two generations failed to repair. English historians, 
treating of* Indian history as a series of struggle about the Com¬ 
pany’s character enlivened with startling military exploits, have 
naturally little to" say regarding an occurrance which involved 
neither a battle nor a parliamentary debate. Mill with all his 
accuracy and ^minuteness, can spare barely five lines for the sub¬ 
ject, and the recent famine Commissioners confess themselves 
unable to fill in the details. But the disaster which from this 
distance floats as a faint peak on the horizon of our rule, stands 
out in the contemporary records in appalling proportions. It 
forms, indeed, the key to the history of Bengal during the succeed¬ 
ing forty years.” 3 


i Quoted by L. S. S. O’Malley — op. cit. pp. 16-17. 

3 . W. YV. Hunter — The Annals of Rural Bengal, Calcutta, 1965 (reprint). 


w 


BIRBHUM 

The famine raged in all its intensity from December 1769 to 
ep ember 1770. It was, thus, a one year famine. This was 
followed by abundant harvests for the next three years consecu¬ 
tively, and ‘nature exerted herself to the utmost to repair the 
damage she had done.” 1 

Ths-t she failed to do so, the records of the next thirty years 
mourn folly attest. Plenty had indeed returned, but it had returned 
to a silent and deserted province. Before the end of May 1770 
one-third of the population was officially calculated to have 
isappeared ... and it was estimated that ‘one half of the culti¬ 
vators and payers of revenue will perish with hunger’ 

HaltriTn 4 ' ab “ cr ° ps 0f 1771 lhe COUMr y continued 
. • *. tillage , and the Commissioners appointed in 1772 

to visit the various districts, found the finest part of the province 

to decav V ’ the ! a " dS abandoned and "’C revenue falling 

an elh , W ° yearS after the dearth Warren Hastings wrote 
an elaborate report on the state of Bengal. He had made a 

pi ogress through a large portion of the country, instituting the 

mos searching inquiries by the way, and he deliberately Ites 

the loss as at least one-third of the inhabitants.’ This estimate 

has been accepted by all official and by the most accurate non- 

SiTT “ repreSents an a «* re « ate o f individual suffering 
which no European nation has been called upon to conlemnlmp 

within historic times. Twenty years after the famine the remain- 

mg populahon was estimated at from twenty-four to thirty 

millions; and we cannot help arriving at the conclusion, tot 

he failure of a single crop, following a year of scarcitv had 

Hunter n ' ne | m0nthS SWePt millions of human beings 

ter ’in his account, squarely blamed the policy "of grain 

monopoly of the Company and its inadequate measures to prevent 
the suffering of the people as the main reasons behind the 
enormity of the devastation.* 

The western principalities of Bengal i.e Pirhhnm o ^ 
Vishnupur, bore the full brunt of the natural calamity. “In 
1765, tour years before the famine, Beerbhoom had been culti 

h^mff by m° Se ° n SW thousand ruraI communes, each with a 
hamlet in the centre of its lands. In 1771, three years after the 

amine, only four thousand five hundred of these little com 
munities survived, the cultivators fled from the open country to’ 

1 loc. cit. 

2 ibid. pp. S 4 - 2 K. 

3 pp. 25 - 33 . 



HISTORY 


113 


the cities; but ‘even in large towns’, wrote a Beerbhoomofficial 
in 1771, ‘there is not a fourth part of the houses inhabited. 

When Warren Hastings made an attempt to adjust t e an 
tax in Bengal in 1772-73, the local ‘native’ officials returned t e 
number of rurai communes at a hundred more than the figure o 
1771-72 But the fact of steady depopulation could no e 
concealed for long, and by 1785, nearly fifteen hundred of the 
six thousand prosperous communes had disappeared and 
lands had turned into jungle. “When the British undertook he 
direct management of the district, nearly twenty years after the 
famine, they found the jail filled with revenue prisoners no one 
of whom had a prospect.of regaining his liberty. •••While th ® 
country every year became a more total waste, the Eng is 
Government constantly demanded an increased land-tax ... t e 
villagers were dragooned into paying the land-tax by Mussalman 
troops, but notwithstanding the utmost severities the receipts 
seldom amounted to much more than one-half of the demand. 

Around 1780, considerable portions of the district had turned 
into dense jungles, infested with wild and dangerous animals 
which made life for the inhabitants of the area even more 
miserable. “The evil seems to have reached its climax about 
17^6 From this year English supervision, more or less direct, 
dates in Beerbhoom. The agriculturists were by no means the 
only class who fled before the tiger and wild elephant. The 
earliest English records disclose the forest hamlets of the iron- 
smelters deserted ; the charcoal-burners driven from their occupa¬ 
tion by wild beasts ; many factories and market towns abandoned ; 
the cattle trade, which then formed an important branch of the 
district’s commerce, at a stand ; and the halting-places, where 
herds used to rest and fodder on their way from the mountains 

to the plains, written down as waste.” 1 2 3 , 

But an even greater problem that the East India Company 
administrator faced was coping with the band of robbers, whose 
ranks were swelled by the starving peasantry. The chief English 
Officer, known as the Collector, combined the functions of 
Commander-in-Chief and Civil Governor within his jurisdiction. 
The military side of his duties received undue prominence for 
the first few years. Throughout 1789, the troops had to come 
up against the armed incursions of bandits in Birbhum and 


1 ibid. p. 40. 

2 'ibid. jip. 40-41. 

2 ibiff. p. 43. 


8 



114 


BIRBKUM 


Vishnupur. “Mr. Keating’s position was a difficult one. He had 
to guard Bishenpore on the south of the Adji, Beerbhoom on the 
north, and above all, the passes along the western frontier 
Beerbhoom as the headquarters of the English power, was of t e 
first importance; but if he called in the troops from Blshen P ore ; 
the calamities of this preceding year would be repeated ; an 
if he withdrew the outposts from the western passes, the entire 
district, north and south, would be at the mercy of the hill-men. 
He decided that it was better to let the marauders riot for a 
time on the south of the Adji, then to open up his entire frontier 
An express summoned the detachment from Bishenpore by forced 
marches to the rescue of Beerbhoombut no sooner had they 
crossed the river than tidings came that Bishenpore was itself 
in the hands of ‘insurgents assembled in number nearly one 
thousand’. The rebellion spread into adjoining jurisdictions, and 
the Collectors on the south bitterly reproached Mr. Keating with 
having sacrified the peace of many districts for the sake of main¬ 
taining intact the outposts along the frontier of his own. The 
more strictly these passes were guarded, the greater the number 
of marauders who flocked by a circuitous route into the unpro¬ 
tected country on the south of the Adji. Their outrages passed 
all bounds ; the approaching rains, by suspending military opera¬ 
tions, threatened to leave them in possession of Bishenpore for 
several months; till at last the peasantry, wishing for death rather 
than life, rose against the oppressors whom they had a year ago 
welcomed as allies, and the evil began to work its own cure.... 
In mid-summer 1790 Mr. Keating ordered the senior captain to 
station a military guard with an officer at Bishenpore, whose sole 
business I propose to be that of receiving all thieves and Dacoits 

that shall be sent in’. 1 

“Thus ended the first two years of which we possess a com¬ 
plete record of British rule in Beerbhoom.... Some time afterwards, 
when quiet had been imperiously enforced, Mr. Keating calmly 
and rather despondently reviewed the result of his labours. 
‘Beerbhoom’, he wrote, ‘is surrounded on the south-west and west 
by the great western jungle, which has long protected from the 
vigilance of justice numerous gangs of Dacoits, who there take 
up their refuge and commit their depredations on the neighbouring 
defenceless ryots. Towns once populous are now deserted, the 
manufactures are decayed and where commerce flourished, only 
a few poor and wretched hovels are seen. These pernicious effects 
are visible along the whole course of the Adji, particularly m the 


HISTORY 


115 


decay of Elambazaar ... and the almost complete desertion of the 
once large trading town of Sacaracoonda. When these places on 
the frontier became from their poverty no longer an object to the 
Dacoits, their depredations were extended into the heart of the 
district, and ttfwns have been plundered and people murdered 
within two coss (four miles) of the Collector’s house, by banditti 
amounting to upwards of three hundred men’.” 1 

At a time when the cultivable land in the district was falling 
into jungle and the area was being plundered by insurgents, 
European commercial enterprise, however, prospered in the area. 
The East India Company had a monopoly in the silk industry, 
and the trade was carried on by a Commercial Resident. The 
first Commercial Resident in Birbhum was John Cheap, and he 
hSld this post for forty-one years. “He lived chiefly at Surul, 
20 miles from Suri, where his residence consisted of a pile of 
buildings surrounded by artificial tanks and spacious gardens, 
encircled by a strong wall, which gave the place a look of a 
fortress rather than of a private dwelling. Such, in fact, it was, 
for sepoys were posted at Surul to guard the factory. Here Mr. 
Cheap held an unofficial court, the villagers referring their dis¬ 
putes to his arbitration. Little parties arrived every morning— 
oije bearing a wild beast, and expecting the reward; another guard¬ 
ing a captured dacoit; a third to request protection against a 
threatened attack on their village; a fourth to procure the adjust¬ 
ment of some dispute about their water course or land marks. 
In such matters the law gave Mr. Cheap no power; but in the 
absence of efficient courts, public opinion had accorded jurisdic¬ 
tion to ar^ influential person who chose to assume it, and the 
Commercial Resident’s decision was speedy, inexpensive and 
usually just.” 2 • 

The Company’s trade was on a large scale, and the mercantile 
investment in the district towards the close of the 18th century 
usually varied* from A v / 2 to 6Y 2 lakhs of rupees, annually. 3 The 
weavers worked upon a system of advances, “every head of a 
family in a Company’s village—having an account at the factory, 
which he attended once a year for the purpose of seeing his 
account made up, and the value of the goods which he had deli¬ 
vered from time to time set off against the sums he had received. 


1 ibid. pp. 49-50. 

2 ’L.S.S O’Malley—op. cit. p. 21. 

3 lo<* cit. 









The balance was then struck, a new advance generally given, 
and the account re-opened for the ensuing year.” 1 

Apart from his function as the Company’s Commercial Resident 
in Birbhum, John Cheap was also a great merchant and manu¬ 
facturer on his own account. He introduced thd cultivation of 
indigo into the district, improved the system of manufacturing 
sugar by importing machinery from Europe, and set up a mer¬ 
cantile house which continued to function till the end of the nine¬ 
teenth century. 2 3 “To Mr. Cheap also the district was indebted 
for the only good roads it possessed at the beginning of the 19th 
century, viz., the roads passing from Suri through Surul, to 
Burdwan; from Surul to Ganutia; and from Surul to Katwa.” 1 
He died at Ganutia in 1828 and was buried in the old factory 
grounds there. 4 

The Company also had a Commercial Agent posted in the 
district. According to Drake-Brockman’s account, “The Commer¬ 
cial Agent, Mr. Frushard, whose nationality is entered in the 
returns as French, had been sent by the Court of Directors in 
1782 to be Superintendent of the Company’s silk works, but in 
consequence of a reduction in the investment, his services were 
dispensed with, and he was permitted to erect a silk filature on his 
own account at Ganutia. He purchased the buildings there in 
1785 from a Mr. Edward Hay for a sum of Rs. 20,000 and was 
allowed by Government as an indulgence to hold his lands ‘as a 
paikasht raiyat’. After working thus for two years he was taken 
into the Company’s employ as Commercial Agent, and obtained 
in 1791 a lease of 2,500 bighas of land round his works. This 
lease was granted him at a rent of Rs. 1,590 a year fa? 12 years 
by the Raja of Birbhum at the request of Government. We find 
Mr. Frushard constantly recieving from the treasury at Suri large 
sums of money for silk supplied to the Company. His position 
was not equal to that of Resident. The correspondence between 
him and the authorities at Suri clearly disclose that' less attention 
was paid to him and his complaints. 

“In 1800 Mr. Frushard’s lease was increased to Rs. 3,411 a year, 
in spite of his objections that the rent received by him after many 
years only amounted to Rs. 2,163, while the works had cost 
Rs. 60,000 and had been in the Company’s use without rent ever 

1 loc. cit. 

2 ibid. p. 22. 

3 loc. cit. 

1 loc. cit. 


HISTORY 


117 


being paid by it. His commission amounted to Rs. 12,000 a 
year, which, after paying the interest on his capital, only left his 
Rs. 3,000 or Rs. 4,000. He fell often in arrears with his rent to 
the Raja, and Jhe latter put this forward to the Collector as an 
excuse for himself being in arrears of revenue. Mr. Frushard 
died in 1807, and the factory was taken over by Mr. Cheap at a 
rent of Rs. 3,415 from Government, who had purchased the estate 
at Calcutta for Rs. 15,800 at a sale held for arrears of revenue. 
On the death of Mr. Cheap in 1828 the estate was put in charge 
of Mr. Shakespear, who acted as Commercial Resident till 1835, 
when the manufacture of silk by Government in Birbhum ceased. 
The estate was taken over afterwards by the Collector and managed 
a§ a khas mahal, and has since been bought by the Bengal Silk 
Company,. . .’ n 

Besides those traders who were employed by the Company, 
some other Europeans were engaged in trade in the district. The 
right to work the iron in the district was leased out by the former 
zamindars, and we get a reference of one Mr. Farquhar holding 
the ‘loha mahal’ at a lease of Rs. 765 a year. 1 2 

“At Supur near Surul there was a French factory in charge of 
Messrs. Chaubon and Arrear. These gentlemen had in 1787 been 
ordered by Mr. Sherbourne not to hoist the French flag, and 
Mr. Arbuthnot, the Assistant Collector, was deputed to Supur 
to enforce the taking down of the flag. Later in 1793 when 
notice of war between England and France had been received, the 
Magistrate took ‘paroles of honour’ from these two gentlemen 
‘not to serve against Britain or undertake any fresh sepculation’. 
The Magistrate also took possession of ‘one ... house in 
Supur, which waa French property’. This ‘French factory’ was 
afterwards put under Mr. Cheap’s care on behalf of the 
authorities.” 3 

There were* also four other Europeans engaged in the manu¬ 
facture of indigo and sugar in the district. Disputes concerning 
the growing of indigo were first reported in 1827 at the border 
with Murshidabad. 4 

The most interesting event in the subsequent history of Birbhum 
is the Santal rebellion of 1855 which broke out in the Santal 


1 E. G. Drake-Brockman—op. cit. p. 27. 

2 . ibid. p. 28. 

3 lo<# Pit. 


118 


BIRBHUM 


Parganas and spread to this district. 1 At the beginning of July 
1855 the Santals moved across the border and sacked Paisa in the 
north of the district. They, however, fell back when troops 
advanced from Berhampore (Murshidabad) and defeated them at 
Maheshpur. On July 20, Mrityunjaypur and Narayanpur to the 
north-west of Rampurhat had been sacked, and on the 23rd 
Ganpur and other villages were destroyed. Further south, the 
Santals overran the country from the Grand Trunk Road in 
Burdwan, a few miles across the south-western boundary of <he 
district to Sainthia. Suri itself was threatened at the time and 
Major Jarvis was ordered up with his regiment from Barrackpore. 
On his arrival in Burdwan, he was directed by the Commissioner 
to march straight towards Suri which was in instant danger of 
attack. 

On the western border, parties of the official troops were en¬ 
gaged in skirmishes with the Santals at various places. The Santals 
obtained possession of Nagar and Afzalpur, but after some more 
fighting were compelled to retreat across the border to Kumarbad. 

Towards the end of July, General Lloyd was placed in command 
of a force against the Santals, and shortly afterwards another 
officer. Colonel Bird was appointed, with the rank of a Brigadier, 
in charge of the troops in Birbhum and Bankura. All the avail¬ 
able troops were hurried up, and quiet was restored in this part 
of the country by 17 August. Trouble, however, started again 
when a proclamation was issued the next month which stated that 
all but those who had led the rebellion and committed violent acts 
would be pardoned. By the end of September the IV^agistrate of 
Birbhum reported that the Santals had once again risen up in 
arms, and that the whole country from four miles west of Nagar 
to Deoghar was in their hands. One large body of Santals were 
waiting at Tilabuni, six miles west of Suri, where they were wait¬ 
ing for another large group of Santals to join them in order to 
launch an attack on the district town. 

At length, in November 1855 martial law was proclaimed, and a 
cordon of outposts, consisting of 12 to 14 thousand men, in 
some cases, pushed back the Santals from the open country. By 
the end of the cold season of 1855-56 the Santals had tendered 
their submission. 


1 The following account of the Santal Rebellion has been compilod from 
the Annals of Rural Bengal by W. YV. Hunter, pp. 123-36. 


119 


4 


S 


HISTORY 


After the Santal rebellion, the upland tracts of the west were 
transferred to the newly created district of Santal Parganas. This 
was an important outcome of the movement, and reflected the 
Government’s recognition of the separate identity of the Santals. 
The parganas *that were affected by this transfer, were Sarath 
Deoghar, Pubbia, Kundahit, Karaya, Muhammadabad and part 
of Darin Mauleswar. 

In 1879 another change took place in the district, when 
Barwan, with an area of 108 square miles was transferred to 
Murshidabad, and Rampurhat and Nalhati were transferred to the 
district of Birbhum. 1 The physical limits of the district have 
remained unchanged since then. 


* 


4 



rnr O’Malley—op. cit. p. 27. 


( 


I 


Population 


The total 
population 
of the 
(list rict 


CHAPTER III 
PEOPLE 

In the Census of March 1961 a total of 14 46 i« ™ 

a n „ U a“V 7 S 57 ,Vin8 “ ‘f diStrict ° f Id 

to the Surveyor fjenend of' T"*"* 

able with the n.Wi * r ^ Th ea fi § ures are not avail- 

siona. survey o^e If and"! ^ * S revi ' 

tion Lists have not hi ff t , C ° nSequent revision of Jurisdic- 

made by the Census IT I Accordin S to the computation 
diction Li ts ,h ” , , D,rectorate - f tom the latest available Juris- 

(4,514.4 square kilometres).' For a ft „ ‘L r** 

to the density of population the lata fe h h g “?t 8 
consideration. ^ re las ^ een ta ken into 

7 n h A* d f StnC ! P ° pulation was composed of 7,32,922 males and 
7,13 236 females, giving a male-female ratio of 51 • 49 n, t e 

T ° f j 4 ’ 46 ^.^son S , .3,45,389 pefons or 93 04 I f f 

or 6 9fi 1C popu atlon lived ln the rural areas and only I 00 769 

Brrbhum district comprises 5 1 ner cent of , , , 
the State of Wes, Bengal and is inhabited by f f pe clfltlf 
total population of the State. P the 

The table in Appendix I gives an idea about the main de m „ 
graphic features of the district according to the Census of 1961 
Jo administrative convenience the district is dividfi Seen 

of Suri, Rajnagar, areaS 

u “- - cua: 

,.i..,i,oii wo 

out as tne vSadar Sub-division comorkes a mi.^n 

larger area the pressure of population on lalfs heavier n 

Rampurhat Su b-division. The table in Appendix II gives! corn- 

attributed ,„ V difference In surveyin" methods r “° ndl ' d - 11 ma y he 

“ - tt&rsz 


i 


PEOPLE 


121 


parative quantitative description of the two sub-divisions, so far as 
the area, housing and population are concerned. 

The Sadar Sub-division comprises areas within ten thanas and 
Rampurhat Sub-division comprises areas under the criminal juris¬ 
diction of four* thanas as detailed above. The following table 
gives a quantitative picture of area, houses, and population in 
different thanas of the district, as it obtained in March 1961. 


POLICE STATION-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF AREA, 
HOUSES & POPULATION : CENSUS 1961 


Police 

Stations/ 

Towns 

Total 

Rural 

Urban 

Area in 
sq. mile 
(sq. km.) 

No. of 
villages 
inhabited 
(uninha¬ 
bited) 

No. of 
occupied 
residential 
houses 

Population 

Persons 

Males Females 

Suri 

T 

113.1 

(229.9) 

185 

(23) 

26,453 

1,05,427, 

54,321 

51,106 


R 

109.4 

(283.4) 

185 

(23) 

21,707 

82,586 

41,695 

40,891 

• 

U 

3.7 

(9.5) 

— 

4,746 

22,841 

12,626 

10,215 

Suri (M) 

T 

3.66 

(9.48) 

— 

4,746 

22,841 

12,626 

10,215 

Rajnagar 

T 

85.2 

(220.7) 

84 

(14) 

12,288 

41,973 

21,248 

20,725 


• R 

85.2 

(220.7) 

84 

(14) 

12,288 

41,973 

21,248 

20,725 

Mahammad T 
Bazar 

121.0 

(313.4) 

134 

(24) 

17,742 

66,362 

33,519 

32,843 


R 

121.0 

(313.4) 

134 

(24) 

17,742 

66,362 

33,519 

32,843 

Ilambazar 

R 

100.2 

123 

(16) 

15,852 

68,882 

34,645 

34,237 

Sainthia 

T 

124.1 

(311.1) 

220 

(13) 

24,656 

1,04,698 

53,647 

51,051 


R 

118.8 

(307.7) 

220 

(13) 

22,452 

92,602 

47,098 

45,504 

■» * 

U 

1.3 
* (3.4) 

— 

2,204 

12,096 

6,549 

5.547 


* 


1 



122 


BIRBHUM 


Police 

Total 

Area in 

No. of 

villages 

inhabited 

No. of 
occupied 

Population 

Stations/ 

Towns 

Rural 

Urban 

sq. mile 
(sq. km.) 

(uninha¬ 

bited) 

residential 

houses 

Persons 

Males Females 

Sainthia 

(N.M.) 

U 

1.30 

(3.37) 

— 

2,204 

12,096 

6,549 5,547 

Dubrajpur 

T 

138.8 

(359.5) 

192 

(40) 

22,642 

97,695 

49,359 48,336 


R 

135.9 

(352.0) 

192 

(40) 

19,637 

83,778 

42,166 41,612 


U 

2.9 

(7.5) 

— 

3,005 

13,917 

7,193 6,724 

Dubrajpur 

(N.M.) 

U 

2.90 

(7.51) 

-- 

3,005 

13,917 

7,193 6,724 

Khayrasol 

T 

105.6 

(273.5) 

129 

(41) 

16,538 

77,226 

39,127 38,099 


R 

105.6 

(273.5) 

129 

(41) 

16,538 

77,226 

39,127 38,099 

Bolpur 

T 

128.8 

(333.6) 

158 

(ID 

25,546 

1,11,950 

57,905 54,045 


R 

123.7 

(320.5) 

158 

(ID 

21,208 

88,595 

45,158 43,437 


U 

5.1 

(13.1) 

— 

4,338 

23,355 

12,747 10,608 

Bolpur (M) U 

Labhpur T 

5.07 

(13.13) 

104.7 

(271.2) 

160 

(19) 

4,338 

19,396 

23,355 

91,610 

1 ( £,747 10,608 

45,876 45,734 


R 

104.7 

(271.2) 

160 

(19) 

19,396 

91,610 

o 

45,876 45,734 

Nanur 

T 

119.4 

(309.2) 

131 

(7) 

22,916 

98,476 

49,483 48,993 


R 

119.4 

(309.2) 

131 

(7) 

22,916 

98,476 

49,483 48,993 

Mayureswar T 

147.1 

(381.0) 

233 

(12) 

34,393 

1,28,274 

64,576 63,698 


34,393 1,28,274 64,576 63,698 


R 


147.1 

(381.0) 


233 

( 12 ) 


v/ si, 


PEOPLE 


123 


Police 

Stations/ 

Towns 

Total 

Rural 

Urban 

Area in 
sq. mile 
•(sq. km.) 

No. of 

villages No. of 
inhabited occupied 

/ 

Population 

\ umni'ci- 
bited) 

ICMUCllucii 

houses 

Persons 

Males 

Females 

Rampurhat T 

182.4 

(472.4) 

203 

(9) 

37,896 

1,74,260 

88,542 

85,718 


R 

180.4 

203 

34,300 

1,54,363 

77,678 

76,685 


U 

2.0 

(5.1) 

— 

3,596 

19,897 

10,864 

9,033 

Rampurhat U 

(M) 

1.97 

— 

3,596 

19,897 

10,864 

9,033 

Nalhati 

• 

T 

138.8 

(359.5) 

140 

(6) 

33,149 

1,40,058 

70,441 

69,617 


R 

136.2 

(352.8) 

140 

(6) 

31,502 

1,31,395 

65,773 

65,622 


U 

2.6 

(6.7) 

— 

1,647 

8,663 

4,668 

3,995 

Nalhati 

(N.M.) 

U 

2.57 

(6.66) 

— 

1,647 

8,663 

4,668 

3,995 

Murarai 

T 

137.8 

(356.9) 

142 

(9) 

32,661 

1,39,267 

70,233 

69,034 


R 

137.8 

(356.9) 

142 

(9) 

32,661 

1,39,267 

70,233 

69,034 


It may be seen from the table given above, that Rampurhat 
thana was the largest both in respect of area and population and 
Rajnagar thana the smallest in those two respects. In size of the 
area Mayujeswar, Nalhati (and Dubrajpur), Murarai and Bolpur 
came after each other, in that order, after Rampurhat. So far . 
as the size of the* population was concerned Nalhati, Murarai, 
Mayureswar and Bolpur, came after each other, in that order, 
after Rampurhat. The northern thanas, that is the police stations 
within the jurisdiction of Rampurhat Sub-division, were not only 
larger in size than their counterparts within Sadar Sub-division 
but also were generally more populous. It will be seen a little 
later that the most densely populated police station of the district 
was Murarai; followed by Nalhati, Rampurhat, Suri, Mayureswar 
(and also Sainthia) and Bolpur, in that order. Thinly populated 
thanas included Rajnagar, Mahammad Bazar, Ilambazar, Khay- 
rasol, and Dubrajpur. 

The thana-wise pattern of the distribution of population of 
Ramp*ifhat Sub-division has more or less remained the same 




124 


BIRBftUM 


since the beginning of Census operations in 1872. But the pattern 
of distribution of population in the southern thanas seems to have 
been subject to good deal of fluctuation. In 1910 O’Malley found 
Bolpur to be the most thinly populated thana and^Suri the second 
most sparsely populated police station area. In the same context 
O’Malley remarked that Bolpur thana area had once been quite 
populous. 1 According to the data provided by 1961 Census, 
Bolpur is the most populous thana of Sadar Sub-division and 
Suri is the next most populous thana of the same Sub-division. It 
is, therefore, worthwhile to sketch the history of fluctuations in 
population pattern in order to know the factors which have 
governed such fluctuation in Birbhum district. 

The statement given below indicates the fluctuations in the size 
of population in Birbhum district for each decennial year since 
1872. 


FLUCTUATIONS IN POPULATION-SIZE SINCE 1872 


Total 

Rural 

Urban 

Year 

Population 

Decade 

variation 


Decade 

Percentage 

variation 

Total 

1872 

8,51,235 

_ 


- t 


1881 

7,92,031 

-59,204 


-6.95 


1891 

7,98,254 

+ 6,223 


+ 0.78 


1901 

9,06,891 

+ 1,06,196 (mean) 

+ 13.31 (mean) 


1911 

9,40,162 

+ 33,271 


+ 3.67 


1921 

8,51,725 

-88,437 


-9.41 


1931 

9,47,554 

+ 95,829 


+ K.25 


1941 

10,48,317 

+ 1,00,763 


+ 10.63 


1951 

10,66,889 

+ 18,572 

k, 

+ 31.77 


1961 

14,46,158 

+ 3,79,269 


+ 35.55 

Rural 

1872 

8,42,234 

— 




1881 

7,84,183 

-58,051 


-6.89 


1891 

7,90,773 

+ 6,590 


+ 0.84 


1901 

8,98,199 

+ 1,04,426 


+ 13.59 


1911 

9,31,031 

+ 32,832 


-+3.66 


1921 

8,28,474 

-1,02,557 


-11.02 


1931 

9,26,677 

+98,203 


+ 11.85 


1941 

9,87,973 

+ 61,296 


+ 6.61 


1 L.S.S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers, Birbhum. Calcutta* jqio. 
p. 30 . 


PEOPLE 


125 


Total 

Rural 

Urban Year 

Population 

Decade 

variation 

Decade 

Percentage 

variation 

Rural— 1951 

\t 

9,97,896 

+9,923 

+ 1.00 

contd. 1961 

13,45,389 

+ 3,47,493 

+ 34.82 

Urban 1872 

9,001 

— 

— 

1881 

7,848 

-1,153 

-12.81 

1891 

7,481 

-367 

-4.68 

1901 

8,692 

+ 1,211 

+ 16.19 

1911 

9,131 

+ 439 

+ 5.05 

1921 

23,251 

+ 14,120 

+ 154.64 

1931 

20,877 

-2,374 

-10.21 

1941 

60,344 

+ 39,467 

+ 189.05 

1951 

68,993 

+ 8,649 

+ 14.38 

1961 

1,00,769 

+ 31,776 

+ 46.06 


The first estimation of the population of the district was made 
in 1789 by the then Collector, Christopher Keating. According 
to his estimation* the population was in the order of 8,00,000 for 
the tract comprising the present district of Birbhum,.as well as 
the* part of Murshidabad district to the west of the Bhagirathi, 
Vishnupur Sub-division of Bankura district and Deoghar Sub¬ 
division of Santal Parganas district. In another estimation, made 
in 1801, the population figure stood at 7,00,000 persons for the 
tract which comprised Deoghar and a part of Dumka areas of 
Santal Parganas besides present Birbhum. The Revenue Survey 
of 1848-52 estimated the population to be of the order of 5,14,597 
persons; the district then covered an area of 3,142 square miles, 
including some portions of Santal Parganas district of Bihar. Thus 
the district then had an average of 163 persons to a square mile. 

As is evident from the figures relating to the fluctuations in 
population, there was a sharp decline in population of the dis¬ 
trict between 1872 and 1881. It was due mainly to the ravages 
of the epidemic called Burdwan Fever which raged between 1872 
and 1881. The district also suffered from a famine in 1874. 
All the thanas of the Sadar Sub-division suffered equally while 
Rampurhat Sub-division recorded a slight rise of 2.7 per cent 
over the population of 1872. Though in the next decade the 
population of the district registered a little upward swing, the 


* This was more or less a mere guesswork. 


126 


BIRftHUM 


Sadar Sub-division and especially the southern thanas (notably 
Bolpur and Suklipur thanas) of it actually recorded a 4 per cent 
decrease in population, as the fever was still plagueing the sub¬ 
division. The decrease was, however, counterbalanced by an 
increase of 10 per cent in Rampurhat Sub-division. But only 
about one tenth of the total decrease in population of the dis¬ 
trict from 1872 could be covered by the small increase. After 
the disappearance of the fever the population of the district 
rallied round to record an increase of over 13 per cent in the 
Census of 1901 over the population of 1891. The increase was 
more marked in the southern thanas of the Sadar Sub-division 
and in the northernmost thana of the district (Murarai within 
Rampurhat Sub-division). The Sadar Sub-division recorded a 
15% increase while Rampurhat Sub-division registered a 11.7% 
increase over 1891 population. In 1901 the population of the 
district was found to exceed the population of the same tract 
recorded in 1872. There had been some immigration of Santal 
agricultural labourers, especially into Murarai, Nalhati, Khayrasol 
and Bolpur thana areas from Santal Parganas, and some immi¬ 
gration of workers from Bihar employed by the Railway. But 
then these immigrations were more than counterbalanced by 
emigrations out of the district to places where industrial and 
white collar employments were available. Thus it seems that 
the increase was due mainly to natural reasons, viz. more births 
than deaths. 

The next decade, that is 1901-11, recorded an increase of 3.67 
per cent over the population of 1901. Immigration was negligible 
and was more than counterbalanced by emigration. Murarai, 
Rampurhat and Nalhati thanas, in Rampurhat Sub-division, had 
attracted Santal immigrants, as in the previous decade. Excepting 
the areas within the thanas of Suri, Sainthia, Rajnagar, Dubrajpur, 
Ilambazar, Bolpur, Mahammad Bazar and Khayrasol the popu¬ 
lation had increased in other thanas; the increase was most 
evident in Rampurhat Sub-division, which was by 6.7 per cent 
over 1901. The heavy mortality that the population of these 
eight thanas in Sadar Sub-division suffered in 1908 was due to 
the small-pox epidemic that affected the south-western part of 
the district; epidemic was the cause of loss of population. In 
fact, while the Sadar Sub-division recorded a 1.59 per cent in¬ 
crease in population over what was in 1901, in 1911 Rampurhat 
Sub-division showed an increase of 6.73 per cent over what was 
in 1901. v a 



* 


PEOPLE ^ 127 

Some natural events which occurred between 1901 and 1911 
also had their effects on the fluctuations in population. The 
food crop output which had been good till 1905, became short 
in supply between 1908 and 1909 and there were some scarcity 
in 1908-09. Pfices had registered an increase. This drove 
many poor landless labourers out of the district. From 1906 
to 1908 the district suffered from a wave of fever and cholera 
epidemics. Emigration due to scarcity and deaths due to fever 
and cholera epidemics (between 1906 and 1909 deaths exceeded 
births by 41,000) reduced the growth rate of population in the 
district. 

The next decade, i.e. 1911 to 1921, was actually a decade of 
depletion in population. Almost every thana area of the dis¬ 
trict experienced a decrease in population. The Sadar Sub¬ 
division suffered from successive floods between 1911 and 1913. 
The loss the district suffered, from malaria and influenza, is 
reflected in the nature of rural and urban population fluctua¬ 
tions. While the rural areas which suffered most from these 
diseases, experienced decrease in population, the urban areas, 
relatively free from these diseases, recorded a phenomenal growth 
in population. 

from the decade 1921-31 onwards, Sainthia, Ahmadpur and 
Bolpur being free from these diseases began to grow as centres 
of export trade in rice on the railway tracks connecting the dis¬ 
trict with other districts. Paddy husking mills began to be 
established at these places from this decade onwards. The growth 
of population in the decade 1921-31 more than made up the 
loss suffered during the previous decade. The immigration of 
Santal and Kora agricultural labourers and other unskilled' 
labourers from Sanfal Parganas district, especially into Rampurhat 
and Nalhati thanas, was a big contributing factor to this growth 
of population. # But the urban areas suffered a slight depletion 
in population during the decade. The growth was more marked 
in Sadar Sub-division than in Rampurhat Sub-division. 

The overall growth of population between 1931 and 1941 was 
moderate and the growth that affected the rural areas'was more 
or less in keeping with the overall district rate ; the growth of 
population of the urban areas was, however, spectacular. .The 
growth of population during the decade was even in both the 
sub-divisions, Sadar registering a 10.6 per cent growth and Ram- 
purhal, recording a 11.3 per cent growth over the population of 


* 




J 


128 


BIRBHUM 


1931. The growth was most marked in Rampurhat and Nanur 
thana areas. 

The Census of 1951 revealed a small growth of 1.77 per cent 
of population over 1941. This insignificant rate of population 
growth was largely due to large number of deaths in the famine 
of 1943 and epidemics of 1944, as also due to emigration for 
the two reasons stated above. The resultant effects of the 
calamities were partially offset at the beginning of 1948 when 
construction labour began to immigrate into the district to work 
for the Mayurakshi Project which had just begun. Rural areas 
suffered most and recorded a still smaller increase. Though the 
rate of population increase of the urban areas had suddenly 
fallen off from the rate of growth registered in the previous 
decade, the rate was, nonetheless, very impressive. The trend of 
setting up of rice mills in the urban marketing centres which had 
begun in 1938-39 continued during the decade, attracting traders, 
middlemen and unskilled labourers into the urban areas of the 
district. This was evident in the impressive rates of growth of 
population of Bolpur (14.2%), Sainthia (8.5%) and Suri (4.2%) 
thanas containing Bolpur, Sainthia and Suri towns. During the 
decade all thana areas except Nanur, Rajnagar, Labhpur and 
Mayureswar recorded some increase in population. 

Birbhum had never had an economically substantial secondary 
sector. In Birbhum and in neighbouring Santal Parganas iron 
ore used to be found and there had been an indigenous iron 
smelting industry. Enthused by these two facts, some English 
companies had invested capital for setting up of iron industry 
from around the year 1777. But each time the endeavour failed 
and eventually around the year 1900 all efforts to establish iron 
and steel manufacturing units on modern li«nes were dropped. 
Whatever had been the capacity of employment of the industry, 
between the years 1777 and 1900 it dropped to an absolute zero. 

The employment generated by the opening of a coal mine at 
Arang on the western extremity of Dubrajpur thana in 1901 
stood at 6000 per day in 1910 and the employment potentiality 
of the coal mines stood at 1000 in 1951. Stone Quarrying is 
carried on the western fringes of Rampurhat, Nalhati and 
Dubrajpur thanas. The increase or decrease in the employment 
potential of this particular mining sector had been marginal since 
1872, to have any impact of growth and decline of population. 

Till about 1850s mulberry cocoon rearing, silk yarn spinning 
and silk textile weaving used to be the economic mainscay of 


PEOPLE 


129 


large number of people in Ganutia in Labhpur P.S., Baswa, 
Vishnupur and Maragram in Rampurhat P.S. and Tantipara and 
Karidhya near Suri town. After 1850s the cocoon rearing, silk 
spinning and sylk textile weaving industries suffered a decline 
and their employment potentiality, as a consequence, suffered. 
From around 1900, however, the afore-mentioned industries 
stabilised at a very low level of economy and its low employ¬ 
ment potential remained more or less steady with minor occa¬ 
sional fluctuations, till about 1952-53, the time from when the 
industries slowly began to look up. But then, the aggregate 
employment capacity of the industries had never been effective 
enough to have favourable or adverse effect on fluctuations in 
population levels. The decline and regeneration of the cotton 
textile weaving at Bolpur, Surul, Suri, Tantipara, Karidhya, 
Panchiara, Murarai, Nalhati, Rampurhat, Dubrajpur and Sien 
had no more than marginal effect on the increase or decrease in 
district population level. Decrease or increase in the employ¬ 
ment potential of the industry had its effect only on the thana 
population level, if at all. In fact, Birbhum district had never 
had a demographically significant cottage or handicraft industry, 
the decline or growth of which had more than marginal effect 
on*the growth or decline of district population. 

The opening of the Eastern Railway Loop Line in 1859-60, 
Ondal-Sainthia Branch line of the Eastern Railway Main Line 
and Ahmadpur-Katwa Light Railway had significant direct and 
indirect effects on the growth of population in the district. The 
important direct result had been the creation of the employment 
opportunities in the railway itself. The opening of a railway 
workshop at Rampurhat attracted a sizeable number of immi- - 
grants into the district. Grain trading centres began to grow 
up along the railway tracks. It would not be far wrong to 
say that the pastern Railway’s Sahibgunj-Loop line had made 
towns out of the villages like Bolpur, Sainthia and Rampurhat. 
Ondal-Sainthia Branch line’s role in making Suri a town might 
have been secondary but not insignificant (Suri primarily grew 
as the headquarters of the district administration). The growth 
of the infra-structure in the form of railway communication 
facilitated the growth of Bolpur, Sainthia and Rampurhat as 
grain trading centres. The new income generated by the export 
of paddy and rice created new employment opportunities which 
attracted traders, middlemen of all kinds and unskilled labourers 
(in tfTe expanding transport and storage sectors of the local 


130 


BTRBHUM 


economy) from outside the district. The new income in the 
hands oi the traders and middlemen created job opportunities 
for the lawyers, teachers, doctors and clerks in course of time. 

From about the middle of the twenties of the .present century, 
rice milling industry (paddy husking industry had already been 
there ; but it was fairly diffused throughout the district and used 
to be practised as cottage industry, being the secondary occupa¬ 
tions of the households) began to grow up in and around the 
grain trading centres. This industry in its turn began to attract 
lurther immigration of unskilled labour. By the early forties of 
the present century, rice milling industry became the largest 

employment agency in the secondary sector of the district 
economy. 

But as the funds for investment at the disposal of the actual 
cultivators never increased and as the level of technology of 
cultivation never progressed, and as the agriculture remained 
more or less at the mercy of nature, the volume of exportable 
surplus of grains remained more or less at a static level with 
occasional yearly shortfalls due to bad harvest. As the export¬ 
able surplus remained more or less static the volume of trade 
and the volume of milling also, after initial growth, tended to 
become static, i.e. the rate of growth of trade and rice milling 
tended to taper off. This is the reason why the urbanization in 
the district after showing initial promise tended to bog down 
by inherent limitations. 

Birbhum is primarily an agricultural district. In Census of 
1951, 8,62,282 persons out of a total of 10,66,889 persons or 
80.82 per cent of the total population were found to depend upon 
agriculture. Every extension of agriculture by bringing in 
hitherto fallow land had attracted immigration from neighbour¬ 
ing Santal Parganas district as agricultural labourers. Growth 
ol export trade and of agriculture-based industry had also 
attracted immigrant traders and labourers from time to time. 
Similarly every failure of crop due to natural calamities had led 
to emigration; out of the district and more deaths than births due 
to starvation and malnutrition. Asok Mitra in- his Census Report 
of 1951 had rightly commented, '‘the population in Birbhum 
has been a weathercock of the district’s agricultural production 
and natural calamities.” 

The first Revenue Survey of the district was held between 1849 
and 1852. The district then comprised an area of 12,78,171 
acres or 1,997 square miles of which 8,71,846 acres or 1362 


PEOPLE 


131 


square miles or 68.2 per cent of land was under cultivation (it 
is not known whether the figure includes double cropped area 
or not). Productivity was 889 kg. of paddy per acre on an 
average. The collector had also reported that the area under 
cultivation had increased in last twenty years. In 1885 the 
Imperial Gazetteers of India (Provincial Series) reported that 
during the preceding quarter of a century the land under culti¬ 
vation had increased by reclamation of fallow and jungly lands. 
Paddy was cultivated in 93 per cent of the land under the 
plough. Productivity seems to have fallen to something between 
660 kg. and 889 kg. per acre. 

According to the agricultural statistics of the Provincial 
Government in 1903-04, out of a total district area of 1,752 square 
miles, 1,197 square miles or 68.56 per cent of the land was 
under cultivation (141 square miles or 11.75 per cent of it com¬ 
prised current fallow). While 61.71 per cent of total land of 
the sub-division in Sadar (Suri) Sub-division was under cultiva¬ 
tion (and current fallow), 79.37 per cent of the total land of the 
sub-division was under cultivation (and current fallow) in 
Rampurhat Sub-division. Of the cultivated area only 3.08 per 
cent land comprised the double cropped area. Rice was culti¬ 
vated in 83.33 per cent of land under cultivation and current fallow 
lands. 3.25 per cent of land comprised mulberry orchard. On 
rest of the land, cash crops like sugarcane, oil seeds and flax 
were grown. 

According to L.S.S. O'Malley’s Bengal District Gazetteers: 
Birbhum of 1910, out of a total area of 11,21,280 acres, 6,50.900 
acres, comprised the land under cultivation (23,900 acres or 3 per 
cent of it were twice cropped) and 4,63,600 acres comprised the 
current fallow land, i.e. 99.4 per cent of land were under the 
plough or potentially under the plough. This was really a great 
advancement. • 

During the revisional survey and settlement operations of 
1924-32, 68.11 per cent of land were actually under plough, 
2.12 per cent comprised current fallow and 29.77 per cent of 
land were uncultivable under the given technology (which in¬ 
cluded some culturable area other than current fallow land). 
Rice was grown on 93% of land under plough, sugar on 1.10 
per cent, gram on 1.15 per cent and wheat on 1.09 per cent of 
the land under plough. During the settlement operations it was 
also fijund that comparatively more lands were under ploughs in 
Rampurhat Sub-division than in wSuri Sadar Sub-division. Nalhatj 



132 


BTRBHUM 


Police Station area could boast of the highest percentage of land 
under the plough (viz. 80%) while in the rocky area of Rajnagar 
the ratio between total available land and land under plough 
was the lowest in the district (viz. 48.60 per cent.l 

During Ishaque’s Crop Survey of 1944-45 it was found that 
out of a total district area of 11,15,520 acres, 8,15,517 acres 
were under cultivation and 1,04,129 acres constituted current 
fallow and together they accounted for 82.44 per cent of the total 
land available in the district. Proportionately more lands were 
either under cultivation or potentially under cultivation in 
Rampurhat Sub-division than in Suri Sadar Sub-division. 

According to the Director of Agriculture, West Bengal, culti¬ 
vable land in the district in 1949-50 accounted for 9,69,400 acres, 
comprising 87% of the total district area (6% of the total area 
of the district comprised the double cropped area). 

When related to the chronologically immediately following 
Census data regarding fluctuations in district population, these 
land utilization data assume demographic significance. In this 
primarily agricultural district there has been a positive correlation 
and growth or decrease in population (assumption being that 
every extension had in its wake brought in good crop outturn, 
after allowances were made for the crop failures). 

Till 1950-51, agriculture had not only been the principal but 
practically been the only significant causative factor in the fluc¬ 
tuations in district population. After India had entered the era 
of planned development, demographic, economic and social 
change began to take new directions. Since agriculture had been 
the economic mainstay of the district and since there were not 
resources enough within the district for its industrial growth, 
enhancement of agricultural output got top priority insofar as 
this district was concerned. A programme of waste land recla¬ 
mation by afforestation and extension of irrigation, faciliftes came 
as handy answer to the agriculturists’ abject servility to natural 
vagaries. The extension of irrigation, besides being of help in 
the reclamation of waste land, also reduced man’s dependence 
on rainfall and increased the proportion of double cropped area 
to total area under cultivation. In the fifties the emphasis was 
on the major irrigation and multipurpose projects as a result of 
which the district got the benefit of the Mayurakshi Reservoir 
Project. Mayurakshi Project has greatly served its purpose as a 
major irrigation project and has also helped the district to over¬ 
come the perils of major floods. But in the sixties on the basis 


PEOPLE 


133 


of cost-benefit analysis it was found that the big projects were 
uneconomic and so the interest shifted in favour of medium 
irrigation projects from small rivers and canals and minor irriga¬ 
tion projects from deep and shallow tube-wells. As a result of 
these improvements, land utilization in the district in terms of 
agriculture improved considerably, as will be evident from the 
following table comparing the data relating to agricultural 
utilization of land in the district in 1950-51 and 1959-60. 


AREA UNDER CROPS 
(in Thousand Hectares) 


Crops 

1950-51 

1959-60 

Rice 

(1) Bhadoi or Aus 

27.0 

42.4 

(2) Aman or Winter 

282.1 

270.5 

(3) Boro or Summer 

• • 

0.5 

Wheat 

5.8 

7.8 

Maize 

1.1 

0.9 

Gram 

9.5 

17.9 

Other foodgrains 

12.9 

34.5 

Sugarcane 

1.9 

3.7 

Rape & Mustard 

0.4 

0.7 

Til or Sesame* 

0.3 

1.7 

Linseed 

0.6 

1.9 

Condiments and spices 

0.2 

0.2 

Jute 

0.2 

0.3 

Other Fibres 

0.8 

0.9 

Gross area under various crops 

351.2 

388.5 


But a mere 10.62 per cent increase in agricultural utilization 
of land cannot justify a 35.55 per cent increase in district popu¬ 
lation*^ a 34.82 per cent increase in district rural population. 


134 


BlRRHUM 


unless the agricultural productivity increased at a higher rate. 

Due to the investments made in enhancing irriga 1 

the agricultural productivity increased appreciably between . 

51 and 1960-61. But agricultural productivity in Birbhum ma 
a break-through only from 1965-66, with the introduction of h,g 

y ‘ C AtoLT factor 0 in Tht growth of population between 1951 and 
1961 had been the 46.06 per cent growth of urban popufa ion 
of the district. Since this growth was not an effect of 1 
growth, the population increase of the urban areas was pnmar, y 
due to the growth of tertiary sector. More white co far emp o - 
ments were created ,n government agencies and mo “dm 
and students came to stay in the urban areas of the distr c Bm 
a large part of urban population in this primarily agricultural 
district though derived their incomes from the secondary and 
tertiary' sectors of the economy, ultimately were sustained by 
agriculture. Those who worked in rice and sugar mills, those 
Who worked in transport, storage and communication sectors o 
the economy and even the lawyers and teachers in urban areas 
ultimately depended upon the agriculture. 

Between 1951 and 1961 the district suffered no great natura 
calamity except a Hood in 1956 and due to the public health 
measures, including the measures for the eradication of malaria, 
undertaken by the public health authorities and due to the refa 
lively better availability of medical aid, the death rat 
1951 and 1961 fell off sharply. Rate of death at child birth and 
rate of death at birth also fell off appreciably. All these facto 
also boosted up the rate of live births. Together, these factors 
resulted in a sharp increase in population. The 1961 Censu 
registered an overall increase of 35.5% over the population o 
1951 Both the sub-divisions had registered an almost equa rale ol 
growth, though the rate of growth differed considerably from 
police station to police station depending on the,, topographical 
peculiarities, irrigation and transport facilities an gene 
of agriulture etc. The table following will show variations 
populations of different territorial units of the district between 

1951 and 1961. 


135 


J 


PEOPLE 
19 

ABSOLUTE & PERCENTAGE VARIATION OF POPULATION IN 
DIFFERENT TERRITORIAL UNITS OF BIRBHUM DISIR1CT : 1951 — 1961 


Dislrict/Sub-division/ 
Police Statftm 


Birbhum District 

Sadar Sub-division 
Suri 

Rajnagar 
Mahammad Bazar 
Sainthia 
Dubrajpur 
Khayrasol 
llambazar 
•Bolpur 
Labhpur 
Nanur 

Rampurhat Sub-division 
Mayureswar 
Rampurhat 
Nalhati 
Murarai 


Population Variation Percentage Population 

1961 1951-61 1951-61 1951 


14,46,158 

+ 

3,76,269 

+ 

35.5 

10,66,889 

8,64,299 

+ 

2,26,140 

+ 

35.4 

6,38,159 

1,05,427 

+ 

24,604 

+ 

30.4 

80,823 

41,973 

+ 

8,447 

+ 

25.2 

33,526 

6,61,362 

+ 

12,970 

+ 

24.3 

53,392 

1,04,698 

+ 

33,925 

+ 

47.9 

70,773 

97,695 

+ 

21,649 

+ 

28.2 

76,226 

77,226 

+ 

15,673 

+ 

25.5 

61,553 

68,882 

+ 

20,593 

+ 

42.6 

48,289 

1,11,950 

+ 

34,510 

+ 

44.6 

77,440 

91,610 

-f- 

24,832 

+ 

37.2 

66,778 

98,476 

+ 

29,117 

+ 

42.0 

69,359 

5,81,859 

+ 

1,53,129 

+ 

35.7 

4,28,730 

1,28,274 

+ 

36,439 

+ 

39.7 

91,835 

1,74,260 

+ 

42,951 

+ 

32.7 

1,31,309 

1,40,058 

+ 

37,942 

+ 

37.2 

1,02,116 

1,39,267 

+ 

35,797 

+ 

34.6 

1,03,470 


From a study of vital statistics regarding the district population 
it. is observed that from 1921 onwards the death rate had been 
steadily falling off. But the most spectaculai decline in death rate 
came off in the decade between 1951 and 1961. This decline was 
largely due to improved public health facilities including 
the success of the National Malaria Eradication Piogramme, 
reduction in number of deaths at child birth due to the greater 
availability of medical care during delivery and lesser number 
of deaths during natural calamities due to the improvements in 
communication facilities etc. 

While available administrative measures are more or less 
adequate insofar as recording of deaths in West Bengal plains 
are concerned (excepting in the very inaccessible regions and in 
tribal pockets removed from Bengali Hindu and Muslim peasant 
communities or urban centres), the available administrative 
machinery to record births are quite inadequate. The inadequacy 
of birth recording machinery is all the more felt in rural-agricul¬ 
tural districts like Birbhum. After accounting for the migrants 
it was seen that the births registered between 1951 and 1961 fall 
short by 12.6 per cent to account for the growth of population 
between 1951 and 1961. Yet, for whatever it is worth, the births 
registrar showed that the birth rate was falling off between 1921 


Vital 
statist its 
M igration 





136 




and 1951. But between 1951 and 1961 it showed a definite upward 
swing. 

In the decade between 1921 and 1931 the birth rate was 
9.3 per cent higher than the death rate ; in the next decade the 
gap came down to 7.6 per cent and in 1941-51 decade the birth 
and the death rate actually stood at par. So, the increase in 
population of the district between 1941 and 1951 was not due to 
natural reasons but due to migration. But in the decade between 
1951 and 1961 when the decennial death rate came down to 
11.0 per cent and the birth rate rose up to 28.8 per cent, the 
decennial rate of natural growth stood at 17.8 over the popula¬ 
tion of 1951. 

The table following gives an indication of birth and death rates 
in Birbhum between 1921 and 1961, vis-a-vis the rate of natural 
growth of population in the same period. 

1951-60 1941-50 1931-40 1921-30 

Geometric mean 
of population 

of decade 12,46,924 10,57,577 9,97,086 8,98,790 

Inter-Census 

population 

growth rate + 30.4 +1.8 + 10.1 + 10.7 

Inter-Census 
birth rate 
(Registered only) 

Inter-Census 
death rate 
(Registered only) 

Inter-Census rate 
of natural increase 
(Registered only) + 17.8 +0.1 + 7.6 + 9.2 


28.8 26.3 34.6 -36.4 


11-0 26.3 27.0 27.1 


Migration-cum- 
registration 
error rate 


+ 12.6 + 1.7 + 2.5 ‘v 1.4 


PEQPLE 


137 


According to 1961 Census, 1,31,781 persons enumerated in the Mi 
district of Birbhum were born outside the bounds of the district 
and formed 9.1 per cent of the total district population. Birbhum 
thus is one of the six districts of the state having less than 10 
per cent immigrant content in population (other districts being 
Midnapur, Bankura, Purulia, Murshidabad and Malda). 

Persons bom in other districts of West Bengal and enumerated 
in the district numbered 63,789 and constituted 4.4 per cent of 
the total district population and 48.4 per cent of the total migrant 
population in the district. A large majority of those who came 
from other districts of West Bengal came from the neighbouring 
districts of Murshidabad and Burdwan. Murshidabad alone sent 
24,853 and Burdwan 23,531 persons. 

•Persons born in other states of India and enumerated in the 
district, numbered 40,725 and accounted lor 2.8 per cent of the 
total population of the district and 30.8 per cent of the total 
migrant population of the district. Of these, the immigrants from 
Bihar alone numbered 36,727 and accounted for 90.1 per cent 
of immigrants of this category. A large number of these migrants 
are Santals and other Adivasis from the neighbouring Santal 
Parganas district of Bihar. But the exact proportion of Santal and 
Hindi/Bhojpuri/Maithili and Urdu speaking migrants from Bihar 
cannot be known, since there is a large number of Santals of 
local origin in Birbhum and since Hindi/Bhojpuri/Maithili and 
Urdu speaking populace in the district includes migrants from 
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh too. 

Persons born in countries other than India and enumerated in 
this district numbered 27,265 and accounted for 1.9 per cent of the 
total district population and 20.7 per cent of the total immigrant 
population of the. district. Of these only 106 were non-Indian 
nationals and rest were naturalized Indians. The preponderance 
of naturalized Indians in this category is explained by the recent 
political history of the country. A great majority of the immi¬ 
grants of this category were born in Bangladesh. The immigrants 
from Bangladesh numbered 22,239 and accounted for 81.5 per 
cent of the total migrants of this category, 16.9 per cent of the 
total migrants of all categories and 0.9 per cent of'the total dis¬ 
trict population. Though some of those who were born in those 
parts of undivided India which later became parts of Pakistan 
were in this district or somewhere in West Bengal or India from 
before the partition of the country, a large majority of them came 
irito the district as a direct consequence of the partition of the 


BIRBtfUM 


138 

country. Undoubtedly, the largest majority of those who were 
u in p-.rts of undivided India, which became parts ol 
Pakistan after the partition, were Hindus iron . 
people born in Nepal and enumerated in he cl.t ^ 

1,165 persons and accounted for 0.8 per cent 
migrant population of all categories. r | • „ 

The following table based on the Census o g 

idea about the volume of immigration into the dis 

various sources. 

IMMIGRANTS in B1 RBHUM: CENSUS 1961 


Percentage of 
immigrant 

Persons population Males Females 


Total number 
of immigrants 1 

,31,781 

(of 

9.1 

total dis- 

52,650 

79,131 


trie! 

; population) 



Bora in 





other district 
of West Bengal 

63,789 

48.4 

20,075 

43,714 

(Murshidabad district) 

24,853 

1.8 



(Burdwan district) 

23,531 

1.7 

- 


Born in other 

States of India 
(Bihar) 

40,725 

36,727 

30.8 

27.8 

16,993 

14,268 

23,734 

22,459 

Born in countries 
other than India 
(Bangladesh) 

(Nepal) 

(Non-Indian nationals) 

27,265 

22,238 

1,165 

106 

20.7 

16.9 

0.8 

0.08 

15,582 

12,924 

1,113 

75 

11.683 

9,314 

52 

31 

w _ 


PE9PLE 


139 


It is evident from this presented statement that females 
outnumber men as immigrants into the district. The number of 
female immigrants from the neighbouring districts to Birbhum is 
double the number of male immigrants. The preponderance of 
female immigrants over males from Bihar is also very clear from 
the date presented as above. The inevitable conclusion is that 
more women come into the district as brides than go away from 
the district as brides (Bengali and Bihari Hindus and Muslims, 
as well as the Santals have the system of patrilocal residence). 
That this migration has very little to do with employment or 
gainful economic pursuit is proved by the fact that males in 
these categories of immigration number only about half of the 
female immigration. This sort of migration can be called the 
nliptial migration. This incidentally leads us to another socially 
significant fact. Birbhum forms the bridge between the cultural 
entity known as north Radha and the cultural entity known as 
south Radha. Hindus and Muslims belonging to ritually 
similarly placed status groups of Birbhum contact marriages both 
in Murshidabad (in northern Radha) and in Burdwan (in 
southern Radha) with whom they have several points of cultural 
affinity. Similarly, the Santals of Santal Parganas district in 
Bi)iar and of Birbhum consider themselves as belonging to the 
same cultural-geographic community and establish marital 
relations. 

Only in the case of immigrants from countries other than 
India do the males preponderate over the females. In the case 
of migrants from Pakistan the male preponderance is a little 
above wh§t is normal male female ratio available in the district. 
The reason for this little disparity cannot easily be posited. 
Insofar as the immigrants from Nepal are concerned, it can be 
said that the migration is mainly economic in character. The 
immigrants come into the district to earn a living, leaving their 
family members at their place of origin, maintain a close com¬ 
munication with their place of origin and go back to their native 
place after a certain period of time. 

Insofar as persons born in other states of India and persons 
born in the neighbouring districts within West Bengal, in Birbhum 
are concerned, their distribution pattern as between rural and 
urban areas of the district is significant. Out of a total of 
1,04,514 persons born in other districts of West Bengal and in 
other states of India (found in the district), 92,247 persons or 
88.3 ^5er cent of the migrants were found in the rural areas. 



140 


BIRBHUM 


84 per cent of the males and 90.5 per cent of the females who 
had immigrated from other districts of West Bengal and other 
states of India were found in the rural areas of Birbhum district. 
It can be presumed that the largest number of male immigrants 
joined the work force in the agriculture sector 1, of the district 
economy and the majority of female immigrants became house¬ 
wives of the native-born males. The pattern of distribution 
between urban and rural areas of the persons born in countries 
other than India, found in the district, is more or less the same. 
Of 27,265 persons of foreign origin found in the district in 1961, 
a total of 18,162 persons or 66.6 per cent of the immigrants of 
this category were found in the rural areas and 9,103 or 33.4 
per cent were found in the urban areas. 

During the 1961 Census, 2,71,868 persons born in the district 
were found to reside at places within the district other than the 
places where they were born. Out of this total 13,695 persons 
of rural origin were found in urban areas of the district. Of 
the total living persons found in 1961 in the district, 2,64,989 of 
the rural-born of the district were found in places other than the 
places of their birth within the district; so it can be said about 
2.5 per cent of those rural born who had moved elsewhere to 
live within the district, had moved to urban areas and this, is 
a negligible rural to urban migration. On the other hand, out 
of a total of 5,907 urban-borns of the district found elsewhere 
in the district, 2,922 or 49.4 per cent were found in the rural 
areas. Of course, a large number of these persons were not 
actually of urban origin, though born in the maternity hospitals 
of the urban areas. t 

The immigration from other districts of the State of West 
Bengal had been more than counterbalanced, by emigration of 
the native-borns to their districts of West Bengal. Nearly 
30,000 persons born in Birbhum district were found in neigh¬ 
bouring Burdwan district in 1961. In Murshidabhd there were 
21,471 persons born in Birbhum. 10,459 Birbhum-born were 
found to reside in Calcutta in 1961 and 11,312 were in 24-Par- 
ganas district. The effect of migration had possibly little bearing 
on the growth of population in the district as immigration and 
emigration tended to set off each other’s effect. 

Since 1901, the sex ratio has always tilted in favour of the 
males in West Bengal. In 1961 there were 878 women per 
1,000 men. In Birbhum district, however, till 1931 females held 
the balance in their favour. From 1901 onwards male ehiploy- 


PEOPLE 


141 


ment seekers began to flock to relatively more industrialised West 
Ben a, front neighbouring provinces and that caused the panty 
Of sex ratio to be tilted heavily on the side of the males. 
Birbhum being one of the least industrialised d.stncts of West 
Bengal, has not attracted any such male-predonunant unnugra- 
tion Moreover, a great many native males of Birbhum were 
leaving their home district in search of employment in industna > 
developed district, leaving their women-folk and children at horn . 
This tended to cause imbalance in the parity of sex ratio in 

Birbhum in favour of the females. 

In 1941, however, it was found that the sex ratio in Birbhum 

stood at near parity. Tn 1951 it tended to conform to the genera 
trend of the State of West Bengal. In 1961 there were 973 
females per 1,000 males in Birbhum. Though the ratio of sexes 
in Birbhum is much more balanced than m the State o es 
Bengal as a whole, yet, since 1951 the sex ratio available : m 
the district tends to conform to the general trend of sex ratio 
in West Bengal. Birbhum. however, still remains a predomi¬ 
nantly rural-agricultural district and one of the least industrialised 
districts of West Bengal. Change in the trend in sex ratio may 
therefore be ascribed to the fact that as agriculture m the dis¬ 
trict is becoming more profitable, those of the male folks who 
would otherwise have left their native district in search of 
employment, now stay within the district. Secondly, though 
industry has not grown in Birbhum at a rate comparable with 
the rate o£ growth of industries in West Bengal, in the twentv- 
year period between 1941 and 1961 there had been some indus¬ 
trial growth in Birbhum too, especially in the sector of agro¬ 
industries. Thirdly, there had been a great deal of growth in 
the transport storage and communication sectors of the district 
economy as a* result of the growth of trade and commerce in 
agricultural products and these have, besides providing employ¬ 
ment to native-born males, attracted male-immigration from out¬ 
side the district. All these factors have contributed to the 
change, in the trend, in favour of male imbalance. 

Below is a table on generation* variation in sex ratio in Birbhum 
and in West Bengal as a whole between 1901 and 1961. 


* A «t*neration is usually taken as 25 years Since census are taken at 
10 vear intervals, a <10 year period lias been taken tor (onipan. . 1 . 


i 


0 S' 

e * 

0 

142 birb'hum 

GENERATION VARIATION IN SEX-RATIO IN BIRBHUM 
& WEST BENGAL : CENSUS 1961 

No. of females per 1,000 ijiales 

Birbhum West Bengal 


Year 

Total 

Rural 

Urban 

Total 

Rural 

Urban 

1901 

1,029 

1,031 

848 

945 

994 

652 

1931 

1,005 

1,010 

798 

890 

961 

578 

1961 

973 

984 

844 

878 

943 

701 


Total rural urban difference in sex ratio available in the 
district, if not as marked as in the case of the State of West 
Bengal as a whole is nonetheless significant. It points to a 
selective migration of the male population from rural areas to 
urban areas in search of education and employment. But then the 
rural urban difference in sex ratio available in Birbhum is not 
so great as it is in the case of West Bengal as a whole. The 
reason for this is not far to seek ; unlike the towns in Calcutta- 
Howrah-Hooghly and Asansol-Durgapur connurbation regions, 
Birbhum town is predominantly rural in character. This obser¬ 
vation is also confirmed by the fact that the fluctuation in sex- 
ratio observed in the rural areas of Birbhum cannot be observed 
insofar as the sex ratio of the urban areas is concerned ; the 
sex ratio available in urban areas of Birbhum has more or less 
remained steady over a period of sixty years. 
r)ensit * Birbhum district comprises a part of the low population 

density region of Radha country in West Bengal. As against 
the state average of 1,021 persons to one square mile area, in 
Birbhum district, in 1961, on an average 830 persons were found 
occupying an area of one square mile. 

The rural areas of the district had an average density of 780 
persons per square mile as against the rural density of 787 
persons per sq. mile for the whole of the State of. West Bengal 
in 1961. As against the urban density of 12.978 persons to a 
square mile on an average in tha State of West Bengal, the urban 
density in Birbhum was 5,768 persons per square mile in 1961. 

The table following, gives an idea of generation variation in 
density of population in the district, as also in its urban and 
rural parts separately. 


PEOPLE 143 

GENERATION VARIATION OF DENSITY OF POPULATION 
IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : CENSUS 1961 

Average number of persons per sq. mile 


Year 

Total 

Rural 

Urban 

1901 

520 

521 

494 

1931 

544 

537 

1,186 

1961 

830 

780 

5,768 


It is interesting to note that the pressure of population in rural 
areas of the district was subject to only very slight variation till 
1951. In the decade between 1951 and 1961 the rural density 
suddenly rose from 578 persons to a square mile to 780 persons 
per square mile. Till 1911 the urban density was below rural 
density, or in other words, urbanization had yet to begin. 
Between 1911 and 1921 the pressure of population on urban 
tracts increased by two and a half times and urban density in 
1921 was three times the rural density. From 1921 to 1931 the 
density in urban areas increased at a slow rate. But while in 
193H the urban density of population stood at 1,186 persons per 
square mile in 1941, there were 3,429 persons to a square mile 
of urban area in Birbhum. Again in the decade between 1941 
and 1951 the urban population pressure grew at a slower pace. 
But the growth in the density of urban population between 1951 
and 1961 was phenomenal. From 3,920 persons per square mile 
in 1951 the«density of population in the urban areas of Birbhum 
grew to 5,768 persons per square mile. The growth of density 
in rural areas between 1951 and 1961 is ascribable to the fact 
that the Mayurakshi Irrigation Project turned a vast quantity of 
hitherto unarable land into cultivable land able to support a 
greater number of people than it could previously. Similarly, 
the phenomenal increase of density in urban areas in the decade 
between 1951 and 1961 is ascribable to the growth of white collar 
jobs in the district headquarters at Suri (as a result of expansion 
of governmental functions after the independence and of estab¬ 
lishment of the headquarters of the Mayurakshi Project there) 
and at the Sub-divisional town of Rampurhat, growth of trade 
and commerce in agricultural produce centering round Bolpur, 
Suri, Sainthia and Rampurhat and growth of Visva-Bharati 
University on the outskirts of Bolpur. 


144 


birbhum 


variattonln density of nonulaf" indi . ca ‘ ion of 'he generation 
Police station areas in jLlLn^district SUb ' divisions and 


VARIATION IN DENSITY OF POPUI ATI 
IN DIFFERENT SUB-DIVISIONS & PO I ICE STATION 
AREAS OF BIRBHUM DISTRICT: CENSUS 1%, 


Birbhum District 
Sadar Sub-division 
Suri P.S. 

Rajnagar P.S. 
Mahammad Bazar P.S. 
Sainthia P.S. 
Dubrajpur P.S. 
Khayrasol P.S. 
Ilambazar P.S. 

Bolpur P.S. 

Labhpur P.S. 

Nanur P.S. 

Rampurhat Sub-division 

Mayureswar P.S. 
Rampurhat P.S. 

Nalhati P.S. 

Murarai P.S. 

It will be seen from the table 


Number of persons per sq. mile 


on an average 


1901 

1931 

1961 

520 

544 

830 

475 

498 

760 

611 

604 

932 

354 

359 

493 

261 

382 

548 

430 

503 

872 

505 

497 

704 

450 

520 

731 

408 

478 

687 

413 

483 

869 

614 

595 

875 

688 

539 

825 

605 

629 

960 

638 

564 

872 ’ 

564 

622 

955 

602 

662 

1,009 

625 

675 - 

1.011 


above that since 1901 Rampurhat 


Sub-division had always been more densely populated than Su 
Sadar Sub-division. The sub-division comprises' alluvial plaii 
washed by the Mayurakshi, the Dwaraka, the Brahmani, tl 
Banslai and the rivulets like the Chilla, the Kandur, tf 
Gambhira, the Tripita and the Surbusal. Agriculturally the sul 
division is very rich, ft is no wonder, therefore, that the sul 
division will have a high density of population. All The foil 


PEOPLE 


145 


police station areas of the sub-division always had higher density 
of population than the district average since 1901. In 1901 
Nanur police station area in Sadar Sub-division was, however, the 
most densely populated police station area in the district. But 
since 1931 this' distinction has remained with Murarai police 
station area in Rampurhat Sub-division. In 1901 Rampurhat and 
Nalhati police stations and in 1931 and 1961 Mayureswar and 
Nalhati police stations recorded densities below the average of 
the sub-division. Incidentally, the density of population in 
Mayureswar police station has not increased apace with other 
thanas of the sub-division. 

Since 1901, the average density of Suri Sadar Sub-division had 
always been below the district average. Areas within the police 
stations of Rajnagar, Mahammad Bazar. Dubrajpur, Khayrasol 
and Ilambazar had since 1901 recorded densities not only below 
the district but also below the sub-divisional average. All these 
police stations situated on the western part of the district have 
undulating lateritic soil of extremely low fertility ; that perhaps 
is the reason of low density of population in these thanas. Till 
1951 the density of population in Bolpur thana area was also 
below the average density of population in the district and of 
Sum Sadar Sub-division. But in 1961 it became the seventh 
most densely populated police station in the district and the 
average number of persons living in per one square mile area 
in this thana is more than the number of persons living in per 
square mile area in the district. This increase had transport, 
partly to the growth of Visva-Bharati University and partly been 
due to the* enhancement of agricultural production due to the 
expanded availability of irrigation facilities after the completion 
of the Mayuraksni Project. Sainthia thana area which had till 
1951 a very low population density, gained in density due to 
the growth of Sainthia town as a centre of trade, commerce and 
communication. In Nanur police station area which was one 
of the most densely populated thanas of the district, this 
decline had been due mainly to the lack of irrigation and com¬ 
munication facilities. Suri police station area is the most densely 
populated thana in the district and it had been so since 1931. 

This thana comprises the administrative headquarters town of 
the district. 

The principal languages spoken in the district are those who languages 
speak "Bengali, Santali, Hindi and Urdu. While Bengali is the 


10 


146 


BIRBHUM 


native language of the district, and of the State, Santali — a 
spoken language of the Santals is also autochthonous, closely 
situated as the district is to the Santal Parganas district of Bihar. 
Hindi has been the language of tradesmen and immigrants, as 
in other districts. Urdu, spoken by the Muslims, has also its 
share to contribute to the linguistic panorama of the district. 

Bengali, among all other languages, is spoken by the largest 
number of persons in the district. According to the Census of 
1961, Bengali speakers numbered 13,08,060 (6,61,146 males and 
6,46,914 females) accounting for 90.4 per cent of the district 
population. Santali speakers, numbering 99,981 (49,950 males 
and 50,231 females) came next, forming 6.9 per cent of the 
district population. Hindi speakers, numbering 18,809 (11,128 
males and 7,681 females) and forming 1.3 per cent of the district 
population held the third place, followed by Urdu speakers, 
numbering 11,750 (6,403 males and 5,347 females), forming 0.8 
per cent of the district population. 

Of the numerous other mother tongues spoken in the district, 
the Census of 1961 enumerated 128 Assamese speakers, 181 
Gurmukhi speakers, 162 Marathi speakers, 652 Marwari 
speakers, 390 Nepali speakers and 581 Oriya speakers, all 
belonging to the Indo-Aryan group, to be living in the district. 
The said Census also enumerated there 33 Kannada speakers, 
5 Malayalam speakers, 16 Tamil speakers, 35 Telugu speakers 
and 246 Oraon (a tribal dialect) speakers, all belonging to the 
Dravidian group. There were also 1,068 Dhangri (Oraon?) 
speakers there. Of the Austric Group the Census enumerated, 
apart from the Santali speakers already stated, J,687 Kora 
speakers, 102 Kol speakers, 12 Turi speakers, 5 Lodha (Kharia) 
speakers, 53 Mundari speakers, though it mig-ht be that some of 
these speakers returned ethnic identity in place of linguistic 
identity. Of the Tibeto-Burman language group, the Census 
enumerated 11 Dhimal speakers, 19 Manipuri Speakers and 2 
Tibetan speakers. Besides the speakers of the Indian languages, 
there were speakers of foreign tongues in the district. Of the 
foreign language speakers, there were 15, 7, 10 and 10 speakers 
of Afghani, Arabic, Ceylonese and Chinese respectively, and 3 
and 4 speakers respectively of Italian and English. 

The following table would indicate the percentage of persons 
in relation to the district population speaking Bengali, Santali, 
Hindi and Urdu, the four major languages of the district, in the 
rural and urban areas of the district. 


PEOPLE 


147 


RURAL-URBAN DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONS IN PER CENT FIGURES 
IN RELATION TO THE DISTRICT POPULATION SPEAKING FOUR 
MAJOR LANGUAGES IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1961 

# Bengali Santali Hindi Urdu 

Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban 


Birbhum 

District 84.6 

5.9 

6.8 

0.5 

0.7 

0.5 

0.2 

Sadar 

Sub-division 48.9 

4.3 

4.8 

0.2 

0.4 

0.4 

0.2 

Suri P.S. 5.0 

1.5 

0.5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

. Rajnagar 

P.S. 2.4 


0.4 — 


- 

_ 

. 

Mahammad 

Bazar P.S. 3.6 


0.9 — 

_ 

. 

_ 

. 

Sainthia 

P.S. 5.6 

0.6 

0.7 


0.1 

. 

. 

Dubrajpur 

P.S. 5.4 

0.8 

0.2 — 



0.1 

_ 

• Khayrasol 

P.S. 5.1 







Ilambazar 

P.S. 4.2 


0.4 





Bolpur 

P.S. 4.7 

1.3 

1.1 


0.2 



Labhpffr 

P.S. 6.9 


0.2 





Nanur P.S. 6?7 

— 

— — 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Rampurhat # 
Sub-division 35.7 

1.5 

2.0 

0.3 

0.3 



Rampurhat 

P.S. 9.7 

0.9 

0.8 — 


0.2 



Nalhati 

P.S. 8.7 

0.5 

0.3 — 


** 



Mayureswar 

P.S. 8.3 


0.5 — 





Murarai 
- P.S. 9.0 


0.3 — 


0.1 




148 


BIRBHUM 


While for obvious reasons Bengali speakers appear to be 
distributed both in the rural and the urban areas of the district 
in the foregoing table, the Santali speakers are seen only in 
rural areas. The Hindi speakers, however, small Their numbers 
may be, are to be mostly found in the trading centres of the 
urban areas of some police stations. The Urdu speakers are 
to be found in the rural areas of some police stations. 

The following table would reveal the number of speakers of 
the four major languages in percentage figures in each adminis¬ 
trative unit including police stations of the district. 

PERCENTAGE FIGURES OF SPEAKERS OF MAJOR LANGUAGES IN 
THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS OF BIRBHUM DISTRICT: ic><>i 



Bengali 

Santali 

Hindi 

Urdu 

District 

90.4 

6.9 

1.3 

0.8 

Sadar Sub-division 

88.9 

8.0 

1.1 

1.0 

Suri P.S. 

89.8 

7.4 

1.1 

u 

Rajnagar P.S. 

81.7 

13.6 

0.3 

3.7 

Mahammad Bazar P.S. 

77.5 

19.3 

0.8 

0.4 

Sainthia P.S. 

85.8 

10.1 

3.1 

0.1 J 

Dubrajpur P.S. 

92.1 

3.7 

0.4 

3.4 

Khayrasol P.S. 

96.7 

1.4 

0.2 

1.7 

11ambazar P.S. 

89.0 

9.2 

0.3 

0.4 

Bolpur P.S. 

78.7 

14.9 

— 

0.5 

Labhpur P.S. 

96.1 

3.5 

0.1 

— 

Nanur P.S. 

98.0 

1.6 

0.2 

0.1 

Rampurhat Sub-division 

92.6 

5.2 

1.5 

0.4 

Rampurhat P.S. 

83.3 

7.5 

2.9 

0.5 

Mayureswar P.S. 

93.8 

5.5 

0.5 

— 

Nalhati P.S. 

95.4 

3.4 

* 0.8 

— 

Murarai P.S. 

93.6 

3.6 

1.4 

1.2 


The foregoing table would reveal that the number of speakers 
of Bengali in the urban police stations like Suri, 'Bolpur, Rampur- 
hat is lesser than in other rural police stations because of the 
influx of speakers of other linguistic groups in the urban police 
stations. Curiously enough, the number of Bengali speakers is 
lowest in comparison to other police stations in Mahammad 
Bazar P.S. where Santali speakers are second in nurnerical 
importance. Although Santali speakers are to be found in all 


PEOPLE 


149 


the police stations, they appear most numerous in Mahammad 
Bazar, Bolpur, Rajnagar and Sainthia police stations. While 
the largest number of Hindi speakers among themselves is to be 
found in Sainthia police station, the number of Urdu speakers 
among themselves is the largest in Rajnagar police station. 

It will be of interest to look into the variations in the popula¬ 
tion strengths of the different language groups in the district 
during the last sixty years beginning from 1901. Bengali speakers 
numbering 8.25,036 constituted 91.45% in 1901 in the district; 
while Santali speakers numbering 47.455 constituted 5.26%, Hindi 
speakers (including Urdu, several Bihari-dialect speakers) num¬ 
bering 23,043 constituted 2.55% respectively. The following 
table shows the variation of populations belonging to Bengali, 
'Santali and Hindi language groups over the said sixty-year period 
in the district. 


VARIATION OF SPEAKERS IN THREE LANGUAGE GROUPS IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1901-1961 



1901 

1931 

1961 

Bengali 

Total population 

8,25,036 

8,51,740 

13,01,064 

Percentage variation 

— 

+ 3.23 

+ 52.75 

Percentage of the district N 

population 

91.45 

89.89 

90.45 

Santali 

Total population 

47,455 

63,797 

1,00,110 

Percentage variation 

— 

+ 34.32 

4 - 56.91 

Percentage of the district 
population 

5.26 

6.73 

6.92 

Hindi 

Total population 

23,043 

13,616 

18,809 

Percentage variation 

— 

40.89 

+ 38.13 

Percentage of the district 

population 

2.55 

1.44 

1.30 


The foregoing table reveals that the number of Bengali speakers 
was almost steady in the first thirty-year period (1901-31), while 
it increased by 52.75 per cent during the next thirty-year period 
(1931-61). The latter change may be due to the influx of refugees 
in tffe wake of the partition of Bengal, normal increase and better 


0 


I 


$ 


Bii.ingijau.sm 


Among the 
Bengali Mother 
Tongue Group 


Among the 
Hindi Mother 
Tongue Group 


Among the 
Urdu Mother 
Tongue Group 


Among the 
Santali Mother 
'■Tongue Group 


W 




s 


150 BIRBHUM 

recording. Santali speakers have shown considerable increase by 
34.32 per cent in the first thirty-year period and 56.91 per cent 
in the second thirty-year period. Apart from the normal increase, 
the increase in the second thirty-year period may also be due to 
better recording which the tribals themselves may'have insisted 
upon protected as they are under the Constitution of India. In 
1901 Hindi speakers included speakers of Urdu and several 
Bihari dialects. In 1931 the number of Hindi speakers went 
down by 40.89 per cent when Urdu speakers and speakers of 
several Bihari dialects were enumerated separately. The increase 
by 38.13 per cent of the Hindi speakers in the last thirty-year 
period (1931-61) may be treated as normal increase of Hindi 
speakers as such, without taking into account Urdu speakers or 
speakers of other Bihari dialects. 

According to the Census of 1961, 1,05,157 persons or 7.3 per 
cent of the total number of speakers in the district spoke a 
subsidiary language. Of the persons speaking a subsidiary 
language in the district, 4.0 per cent spoke Bengali, 2.5 per cent 
spoke English, 0.3 per cent'spoke Urdu, 0.2 per cent spoke Hindi 
and 0.04 per cent spoke Santali. 

44,178 Bengali-speaking persons constituting 3.37 per cent of 
the total Bengali-speaking persons (13,08,060) of the district spoke 
a subsidiary language. Among all Bengali-speaking persons 2.7 
per cent spoke English, 0.3 per cent spoke Urdu, 0.2 per cent 
spoke Hindi and 0.05 per cent spoke Santali as subsidiary 
languages. 

6,779 Hindi-speaking persons constituting 36.04 per cent of 
the total Hindi-speaking persons (18,809) spoke a subsidiary 
language. Among all Hindi-speaking persons 31.9 per cent spoke 
Bengali, 4.0 per cent spoke English and 0.08.per cent spoke 
Urdu as subsidiary languages. 

6,059 Urdu-speaking persons constituting 51.56 per cent of the 
total Urdu-speaking persons (11,750) spoke a subsidiary language. 
Among all Urdu-speaking persons 49.8 per cent spoke Bengali, 
1.2 per cent spoke Hindi and 0.4 per cent spoke English as 
subsidiary languages. 

Bilingualism is very common among the tribals living in a 
mixed society composed of other social and cultural milieus. The 
tribals there come in contact with other linguistic groups and 
adopt their languages as subsidiary languages in their daily life. 
In this district, 44,778 Santali-language speakers forming 44.78 
per cent of the total Santali speakers (99,981) spoke a subsidiary 


w 






1 

(t 



PEOPLE 


151 


language. Among all Santali speakers, 49.8 per cent spoke 
Bengali, 1.2 per cent spoke Hindi and 0.4 per cent spoke English 
as subsidiary languages according to the Census of 1961. 

According to Grierson 1 the Western dialect of Bengali is spoken 
in this district as in the neighbouring Bankura district and the 
western portions of Burdwan district. It 2 differs from Standard 
Bengali in having a broader pronunciation. In this dialect, a 
long 5 is sometimes substituted for the a of Standard Bengali, 
as for instance bolle (pronounced bolle), he said, is substituted 
for balila (pronounced bollo); hola (pronounced holo), it 
happened, is substituted for haila. The sound u sometimes 
substitutes the sound o of Standard Bengali, as for instance, 
Chhutu, small, substitutes chhota ; tumar, yours, substitutes 
tdrndr. The sound e likewise is sometimes written yd and pro¬ 
nounced a, like the short a in cat. Thus, ek, one, is pronounced 
ak, and gela, he went, is sometimes written as gydla, and pro¬ 
nounced galo. As regards consonants the letter / is substituted 
for n, and thus lai, I am not, stands for nai, Idch, a dance, for 
wch, Id, a boat, for na, ladi, a river, for nadi. The final vowel 
of a verb in this dialect is nasalized, and thus khdye substitutes 
khdye (short for khdiyd ), having eaten and karf substitutes kari, 
let* us make. The singular forms of personal pronouns like ami 
and tumi are replaced by mui, I or tui, you. In the conjugation 
of verbs, singular forms like mdgli, 1 asked for, stands for the 
standard magildm; balli, 1 said, stands for balildm. In the 
second person we thus find dchhis for dchha, thou art. In the 
third person of the past tense we find the termination o with 
intransitive and e and ek with transitive verbs. Thus, there is 
hold, he was and balle or ballek, he said, instead of the standard 
balila for the last. The use of contract verbal forms in the 
conjunctive Participle of casual verbs is pronounced, and thus, 
there is uriye for urdiyd, having caused to fly, and buliye for 
bdlaiyd, having summoned. 

The following is a specimen of this dialect, spoken in Birbhum 
and other neighbouring districts : 


The Bengali 
Language as 
spoken in the 
Dist rict 


1 G. A. Grierson—Linguistic Survey of India: Vol. 5: Indo-Aryan Family, 
Eastern Group, Part I. Calcutta, 1903. pp. 69-70. 

2 Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterji places this dialect of East Birbhum under 

l the Eastern dialect of West Bengal prevalent in Radha proper vide 

“Tie Origin and Development of the Bengali Language”, Part I. 
Calcutta, 1926. pp. 139-142. 


1 





152 


BIRBHUM 


C 


C 


The Santali 
language as 
spoken in 
the district 


Hindi as spoken 
in the district 


“£k (ak) loker duta beta chhila ; tader majhe chhutu beta tar 
bap-ke ballek. 'bap he, amader daulater ja hisya ami paba ta 
ama-ke dao’.” (A man had two sons. Of them the younger 
son said to his father — O father, give me the share of our 
property which I am to get). 

One of the ancient tongues of Tndia, Santali, belonging to the 
Munda branch of the Austric family is an important language 
of the district. The form of the language spoken in the district 
is Northern Santali, which is considered to be the standard form 
of the language as opposed to the other form, namely Southern 
Santali. As earlier noted by Grierson, 1 Santali has been influenced 
by the neighbouring Aryan languages, Bengali and Hindi so far 
as the vocabulary is concerned, though the broad agglutinative 
nature of the language remains the same as in old days. Grierson, 2 
however, noted how the sources from which words are borrowed 
influence to some extent the form in which they are adopted. 
Thus the short a is kept in Santali in borrowings from Hindi, 
but is pronounced a when borrowed from Bengali. 

Having an agglutinative form and some checked consonants 
like k\ c’, t\ p’ and other peculiarities of its own, the following is 
a specimen of the language from the district: “mit hod-ren barea 
koda gidrakin tahekantaea, ar unkin motore hudinicdo apate 
metadea — 'e baba, inre padaok menak-ak-reak bakhra den-em- 
ka-tinme, ado aidaritaete hatinatkina’.” (A man had two sons. 
And the little one said to his father — ‘O father, give me my 
share of the property’. So he divided the property into two 
shares.). 

Hindi, as spoken in the district, is the Standard Hindi or 
Khari-boli as prevalent throughout India. The Census of 1961 - 
enumerated the speakers of Bihari language like? Maithili, Magadhi 
and Bhojpuri separately, though the Kosali dialects like Awadhi, 
Bagheli and IChattisgarhi have not been shown in the said 
Census. 

The speech of the midland India, this language remains a 
communication speech in the district, especially in the urban 
areas. 

Though in 1901 the number of Hindi speakers included Urdu 
and Bihari-language speakers, the largest number of Hindi 


1 G. A. Grierson—Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV. Munda and 
Dravidian Languages, Calcutta, 1906. p. 33. 

- loc. cit. 


PEOPLE 


153 


speakers as such was recorded in the district during the Census 
of 1951. In 1951 they numbered 34,257 bemg 3.21per cent 
the district population. In 1961 the number of Hind, speakers 
went down by 45.09 per cent over the Census fig ”“ ’ 

being 18,809 and forming only 1.30 per cent of t 
lation. The fall in number in 1961 may be due to considerable 
emigration of such speakers from the district a 

The earliest epigraphic evidence of writing ^ 

fragmentary Mahasthan inscription found in Bogra distric now 
n Bangladesh) in the Brahmi script which though similar to 
,he script uked in the inscriptions of Asoka are considered by 
some on palaeographic grounds to bepre-Asokan. By a cour e 
of evolution this Brahmi script which is found to be funy 
developed during the time of Asoka gave rise to all te JWj 
dav Indian scripts which are written from the left to the right 
TO. is not a place to enter into a detailed description of such 
evolution and briefly it ..may be |stated that during the 4th 
century A.D. the Brahmi script gave rise to three patterns in 
Northern Tndia which have been classified by R. D. Banerji as 
(1) Eastern Gupta variety. (2) North-Western Gupta vine y 
(3) South-Western Gupta variety. The Eastern Gupta variety 
gradually gave rise to proto-Bengali during the reign of the Palas 
fn Bengal and the script almost forms itself into the present 
day Bengali script in the Deopara inscription of Vijayasena 
(circa A.D. 1120) in which 22 of the letters of the alphabet h 
assumed their present-day forms. The Bengali script hada mos 
taken their present-day from in the manuscript of Snknshna- 


kirtana. * . „ 

The Santali language is written either in Roman or in Benga 

script. The use of the Roman script for the language is a 
heritage of the nineteenth century when the missionaries of the 
Northern churches began working among the Santals in this 
part of the country and in the neighbouring Santal Parganas 
district of Bihar. While the Christian Santals use the Roman 
script for their dialect, the traditional Santals use the Bengali 
script. While checked consonants like k, c, t and p are used 
with apostrophes above them in the Roman script, they are used 
in the Bengali script with a bisarga sign followed by the conso¬ 
nant with a hasanta mark. Besides, the half-vowel between a 


i r d. Banerji—The Origin of the Bengali Script, Calcutta, 1919 - 


Script : 
Bengali 


Santali 



154 


BIRBHUM 


Religion 


Hinduism 


Vaishnavism 


4 . 


and u is now written with a half an sign in Bengali ('f) after 
a consonant. In the Bengali script Santals use letters like ip, g, <» 
and hasanta signs profusely to be more accurate in their pronun¬ 
ciation. 


The Census of 1961 enumerated 6 religious groups in the 
district, namely Hindus (numbering 10,43,661 persons), 
Muslims (3,99,513), Christians (1,804), Jains (660). Sikhs (411), 
Buddhists (76). The said Census recorded only one Brahmo to 
be living in the district. Of the tribals, again, it recorded only 
76 Santals to be professing their own faith. May be, the Brahmo 
and the Santals returned Hinduism as their religion. While 
Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Sikhs are most 
numerous in rural areas, Jains are mostly to be found in urban 
areas, who are possibly recent immigrants connected with trade 
and commerce. 


Hinduism as found in the district through its various forms is 
quite eclectic in nature. Having influences of tantric Buddhism 
on the one hand and folk-rituals on the other, it expresses itself 
through Saivism, Saktaism, Vaishnavism and various gods and 
godlings, fairs and festivals. It is, however, difficult to trace The 
chronology and the history in all details of the different forms 
of this religion. Puranic legends are there, while some very 
powerful personalities, born here, have made distinctive contri¬ 
bution in their fields of religious worship right from the medieval 
days. The religion, as it appears now in the district in its 
various forms, is briefly outlined below. • 

A seat of early Gaudiya or Bengal Vaishnavism the district is 
hallowed with the memory of Jayadeva of Mouza Jayadev- 
Kenduli in Ilambazar police station and Chandidasa of Nanur in 
Nanur police station. The Vaishnava Bhakti cult which began to 
emerge during the rule of the late Pala kings reached its epitome 
in the Gita-govinda of Jayadeva, a court-poet of Lakshmanasena, 
towards the end ofi the 12th century A.D. A poetic and religious 
composition of the highest order, describing the love-story of 
Krisna and Radha, Glto-Govinda was an inspiring source of 
Chaitanyaism of some three hundred years later. It has been 
said 1 that the Radha-legend along with its erotic exuberance. 


1 S. K De—Early history of the Vaisnava faith and movement in Bengal 

Calcutta, iffhi. p. )2 . c f. S. Dasgupta—Obscure religious cults. ^Calcutta 
if)na. pp. 113-4. ’ 


PEOPLE 


155 


inspiring Jayadeva, Nimbarka and the writers of such late 
Puranas as the Brahmavciivarta might have its origin from an 
unknown source. In Bengal Vaishnavism, however, the theme 
of Parakiyd love developed, distinct from the love depicted in 
the Puranas. This theme, which was a theological speculation 
in the early Bengal Vaishnavism, became a matter of practice 
with the Vaishnava Sahajiyas. Tradition holds that Chandidasa, 
the Bengali lyricist of the 14th century A.D. was a Sahajiya 
Sadhaka himself, divinising human love which has been superbly 
expressed in his Radha-krTsna songs. We know that secret yogik 
control of sex-pleasure, transforming it into transcendental bliss, 
combined with different theological systems gave rise to different 
religious cults. Similar in some respects to Hindu Tantricism 
or Buddhist Tantricism including the Buddhist Sahajiya cult, the 
Vaishnava Sahajiya movement, influenced by Yoga and Tantra, 
put stress on love and affirmed that all truth lay in the microcosm 
of the human body. The Vaishnava Sahajiyas assimilated the 
theological aspect of the love-making of Radha and Krlsna of 
Vaishnavism, defied human love and sought for the divine in 
man. 

They believed in the eternal love-making of Radha and Krlsna, 
and they also believed that Radha and Krlsna manifested them¬ 
selves in real men and women. Every person has his svarupa 
(real nature) within himself associated with his rupa (physical 
form). Thus, while attributing divinity to man, the Vaishnava 
Sahajiyas have not denied life on earth or human love. Their 
humanistic approach to life and religion is in line with many 
other medieval religious movements as also with the traditional 
Hindu and Buddhist Tantricism. 

Kenduli, the birth-place of Jayadeva, is still a pilgrim centre 
of Vaishnavas, drawing thousands of them to the annual fair 
held on the last day of the Bengali month Paush and the first 
two days of Magh. Nanur, the birth place of Chandidasa is 
similarly another pilgrim centre of Vaishnavas, inspiring them 
right from the days of Chaitanyadeva, who was himself inspired 
bv the writings of Jayadeva and Chandidasa. 

Although it has been maintained that the Vaishnava Sahajiya 
cult followed the advent of Chaitanyaism, Chaitanyadeva, with 
his followers, gave a new lease of life to the Vaishnava faith in 
the medieval days. Chaitanyadeva, with his Radha-bhava, that is, 
the attitude of love of Radha towards Krlsna, placed Bengal 
Vaishnatfsm on the map of pan-Indian Vaishnavism in his days. 




156 


BIRBHUM 


Nityananda, an associate of Chaitanyadeva, was born of Garbhabas 
in Mayureswar police station and the philosophy of love of 
Chaitanyadeva began to be preached here right from the medieval 
days. Even to this day a fair is held there every year to com¬ 
memorate the birth ceremony of Nityananda. A number of 
Vaishnava festivals like Ras Jatra in the Bengali month of Karttik 
and D61 Jatra in the Bengali month of Phalgun are held in many 
places of the district, like Birchandrapur in Mayureswar police 
station, Supur in Bolpur police station, Mangaldihi in Ilambazar 
police station etc. 

The Vaishnava Sahajiya movement has perhaps found expres¬ 
sion in another form among the Bauls who frequent the fairs and 
festivals of the district, and specially the fairs held at Santiniketan 
in the Bengali month of Paush and at Jayadev-Kenduli thereafter. 
The Bauls, as we know, consist of householders and mendicants 
belonging to the Hindu and Muslim communities. 1 While the 
Hindu Bauls are Vaisnavite, the Muslim Bauls are Sufi-istic, 
both emphasizing the mystic aspect of divine love. Free and 
unsophisticated in their manner, the Bauls may have drawn 
inspiration from the earlier Sahajiyas, who practised secret sexo- 
yogik methods, to which was added the philosophy of all- 
encompassing love of the Vaishnavas. The Bauls say that their 
beloved lies within their heart ( Maner Manush ) and their whole 
effort, yogik or otherwise, is directed towards a search for him. 

The seat of early Vaishnavism, Chaitanyaism, Sahajiya 
Vaishnavism and Baul philosophy, the district has seen the various 
Vaishnava movements for centuries. The movements are, how¬ 
ever, humanistic in nature and the numerous Vaishnava fairs and 
festivals of the district, attended by the common folk even to 
this day, speak volumes about their humanism. 

The District has been a seat of Saktaism and sakti worship 
from hoary past. Abounding in as many as six Sakta Pithas, 
the Sakti cult of the district may have been prevalent in the 
district, as in Bengal as a whole, 2 since the days of the later 
Guptas and the Palas. While the cult of the mother-goddess is 
considered to be current since pre-Vedic days, ‘Sakti’ as a female 
creative force came to be connected with the De'visukta, a hymn 
of the Rigveda (X. 125). In the Markandeya Parana again Sakti 
was euologised in the form of Chanda. In course of time the 


1 ibid. pp. 160-1. 
a R. C. Majumdar (ed.)—The 
Dacca, 1943. p. 407 - 


History of Bengal, Vol. I, His/Ju Period. 




PEOPLE 


157 


form, however, became eclectic, assimilating many non-Aiyan 
features and proliferating in varied forms and names till Buddhist 
mysticism got mixed with it. The fusion of saktaism and 
Buddhist mysticism may have created the highly esoteric and 
Tdntrik form of Sakta worship in the sakta pithas on the one 
hand, and the popular form of worship of the deity under various 
names throughout the district. 

The Sdktci pithas, as we have already said, have become the 
seats of sakti worship. Drawing upon the legend of Daksha-yajna- 
nasa of the Mahabhdrata, probably during the earlier part of 
medieval period a further legend was added to the older one 
describing the dismemberment of the body of the deceased Sati 
and the origin of the Pithas or holy seats wherever the limbs of 
Sati’ fell. It has been said that Siddha -pithas connected with 
Sati’s limbs came to be known as such not earlier than the 14th 
or 15th century. 1 It has also been said that the association of 
the limbs of the goddess with the Pithas may have some relation 
with the Tdntrik ritual called “Pithanyasa”. 2 Analogy in this 
regard has also been traced with the enshrinement of Buddha’s 
corporal relics in the Buddhist Stupas . s 

A composition of probably the early years of the eighteenth 
centifry (C. 1670-1720),' the Pithanirnaya or Mahdpithanirupana 
read with the Sivacharita, a letter work, gives the list of Pithas and 
Upapithas of the district. The Sivacharita mentions Vakranatha 
as a Mahdpitha where Sati’s manas (heart) fell, the presiding 
goddess being Papahara, and her Bhairava or male consort 
Vakranatha. The sivacharita also indicates that Dakshinabahu 
(right hand) *of Sati fell there, and the presiding goddess there 
is Vakreswari living with her consort Vakranatha. The Pitha¬ 
nirnaya indicates that manas (heart) of Sati fell there, and the 
presiding goddess is Mahishamardini. living with her male consort 
Vakranatha. Sakti in the form of Devi Mahishamardini still 
attracts people to Bakreswar in Dubrajpur police station, which 
is both a Sakta and a Saivite pilgrim centre. The cremation 
ground ( smasdn ) here was the seat of tdntrik worship of some 
great Sakta Sddhakas like Aghoribaba, Pramatha Chakravarti etc. 
That Bakreswar was a centre of Hindu tdntrik worship, which is 


1 D. C. Sircar—‘The Sakta Pithas’ in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society of Bengal. Letters. Vol. XIV, No. i. Calcutta, 1948. p. 6., f.n. 

2 ibid., p. 7. 
lo’c. cii^t 

* ibid. p. 24. 


# 


c 


w 




Attahasa 


Tarapith 


4 



• ( 


V 


t 


(*> 


158 BIRBHUM 

highly personal, bereft of pomp and grandeur like other kinds 
of worship, is attested by its appellation guhyatirtha (secret 
pilgrim centre). The Saktas of the district still hold the place in 
great esteem, and being a pilgrim centre of Saivites and Bauls, 
Bakreswar remains a centre of yogik and secret cult of several 
systems of worship. 

A place in Labhpur in Labhpur police station, known as a 
sacred seat ( Pit ha ) earlier than the period when the Pit hanirnaya 
was composed, is hallowed by the legend that Sati’s lips ( oshtha) 
fell here at the time of dismemberment of her body. Phullara 
the presiding goddess, along with her male consort ( Bhairava) 
Visvesa or Visvanatha attracts the saktas to this place. It is 
said that before offering the sacrificial food ( bhog ) to the goddess, 
a part of the same is offered to the jackals from an enclosure 
meant for feeding them. The remainder of the food is then 
taken as prasdda. The manner in which food is offered to these 
jackals suggests that tantrik rituals connected with Sakti worship 
were prevalent here. 

A place near Chandipur in Rampurhat police station, Tarapith 
is considered to be a sacred seat (pitha) of the goddess Tarini 
along with his male consort ( Bhairava ) Unmatta were, it is said, 
the eye-ball (netrariisatara) of Sati fell at the time of dismember¬ 
ment of her limbs. 

With its formidable cremation ground on the bank of the 
Dwaraka river, Tarapith has been the seat of worship of the 
tantrik yogis from a distant past, of whom Bamakshyapa was 
perhaps the most renowned towards the end of the nineteenth 
century. Much has been said about the origin of-Tara, though 
no final verdict could be given as to whether she was a Hindu 
or a Buddhist goddess. Etymologically meaning the goddess who 
removes dangers, her origin has been traced from Tibet, China 
and other Himalayan regions through Buddhism. 1 It has also 
been said that Nagarjuna of the seventh century A.D. imported 
the worship of Tara from Tibet to this region when Srong-San- 
Gampo, the king of Tibet occupied the present Assam and Nepal 
during the advance of Harshavardhana and Bhaskaravarman 
towards Bengal, ruled by Sasaiika. It has been' supposed that 
the tantrik ritual and specially the Buddhist tantricism raised its 
head at this time till the Palas came in Gauda and Radha giving 
fresh lease of life to such Buddhist practices. 2 

1 Benoy Ghosh —Paschim Banger Sarhskrti, Calcutta, 1957. 0.00178. 

2 loc. cit. 











y 




PEOPLE 


159 


Considered to be an Upapitha, Nalhati in the police station of 
the same name, is said to be the seat of tantrik rites and rituals 
for a long time. The name first appeared in the PUhanirnaya, 
wherein it has been said that Sati’s nald (lower part of the elbow?) 
fell here, the^presiding goddess being Kali, living with her male 
consort Yogesa. The Sivacharita, on the other hand, says that 
Sati’s Siranali (a part of the head) fell here, and the presiding 
goddess is Sephalika, living with the male consort. Yogisa. The 
common folk, however, says that the forehead of Sati fell 
here, wherefrom the name Lalateswari >• Nalhatteswari >> Nalhati. 
Situated on the top of a hillock, the god-head named ‘Parvati’ is 
represented by a small piece of stone here. 

A place in Sainthia in Sainthia police station Nandipura is 
mentioned in both the Pithanirnaya and the Sivacharita, the latter, 
considering it to be an U pa pi (ha. Considered to be a sacred seat 
of the Saktas, it is said that Sati’s Hdra or Hdrmhsa (part of the 
necklace) fell here at the time of the dismemberment of her 
body. The presiding goddess here is Nandini, living with her 
male consort Nandikesvara. 

A village in Bolpur station, Jaljol has a temple of Kankali 
De\;i which is also called the temple of Kankali Tala. Though 
not mentioned in the earlier books, the place is known as one 
of the saptapilhas where the waist of the dismembered 
body of Sati fell. 

A village in Dubrajpur police station, Phulbera, contains the 
temple of Danteswari, where it is said that teeth ( danta ) of the 
dismembered body of Sati fell. Though not mentioned in earlier 
books, the common folk consider it to be one of the many 
saktapilhas spread‘throughout the district. 

Of the several other Sakta deities prevailing in the district. 
Kali is perhaps worshipped in large numbers. Although it is 
not known if Nairatma, a goddess of Vajrayana Buddhism, in¬ 
fluenced the iconography of Kftli, it has been presumed that her 
image was first conceived of by some Bengali Tdntriks, may be 
Krishnananda Agambagis, of the middle ages. 1 

One of the oldest Kali imges called Guhyakali, with two 
hands and seated on and decorated with snake-images, is to be 
found at Akalipur (J. L. No. 92) in Nalhati police station. It is 


Jitencfranath Bandyopadhyay— Pancopdsana. Calcutta, i960, pp. 276-7. 


Nalhati 


Nandipura 


Jaljol 


Phulbera 


Other Sakta 
deities: 

Kali 


1 



160 


BIRBHUM 


Bisalakshi 


Bhubaneswari 


saivaism 



said that the deity was established according to tdntrik rituals 
under orders of Maharaj Nandakumar. 1 

Chandidas, the Vaishnava Sahajiya poet of the pre-Chaitanya 
days, worshipped Bisalakshi or Basuli at Nanur, whose temple 
and image, may be, in changed forms, still stand there. Bisalakshi, 
a Sakta deity, is also called Bagiswari. Although she is one of 
the ten Mahavidyas of the Saktas, /witr/Tc-Buddhistic traits as 
also folkish characteristics have been traced in her. 

At village Bara (J.L. No. 107) in Nalhati police station there 
is a Sakta goddess seated on the image of a lion called Bhuba¬ 
neswari. Variously called Bhubaneswari-Gauri, Siriihanad- 
Lokeswar, Manjubar. the goddess is said to be the Buddhist 
Prajnaparamita. It has been conjectured that tdntrik Buddhism 
spread in this region between the 8th and 9th century A.D. and 
the 10th-12th century A.D., which left its marks on the 
images of gods and goddesses now included in the Hindu 
pantheon. 

saivaism finds expression in the district through the several 
temples of Siva existing there. Connected also with Sakti wor¬ 
ship as the male consort ( Bhairava ) of Sakti, Siva has his main 
centre of worship at Bakreswar (J. L. No. 42) in Dubrajpur 
police station, which is considered to be a Saivite pilgrim centre. 
Vakranatha, the deity of the place is worshipped by pilgrims, 
and a large fair is held there during the Sivardtri festival in 
February-March every year. 

At Bhandirban (J.L. No. 202) in Suri police station there is 
a large temple dedicated to Bhandeswar Mahadeva, attracting 
Saivites from all around the district. At Bhimgara (J.J.. No. 139) 
in Khayrasol police station there are five small temples, which, 
legends say, were erected over five lihgaris established and 
worshipped by the Pandavas. On the other side of the river 
Ajay there is another temple over a lihgam, said to have been 
established by Bhim, called Bhimeswar temple. u In Dubrajpur 
(J.L. No. 137) in the police station of the same name there are 
a number of Saiva temples, frequented by Hindus. The temple 
of Buro Siva at Paikor (J. L. No. 76) in Murarai police station 
is an instance of the godhead becoming popular in the region as 
he is affectionately called ‘Buro’ fold) Siva. Similar old Siva 
temples under various names are there at Ganpur (J.L. No. 18) 
in Mahammad Bazar police station, Brahmandihi (J. L. No. 7) 


1 Benoy Ghosh—op. cit., p. 166. 



PEOPLE 


161 


in Nanur police station. Kaleswar (J. L. No. 207). Malian i 
(J L No. 22), Mayureswar (J.L. No. 136), Kotasur (J.L. No. 102) 
and Dabuk (J.L. No. 158) in Mayureswar police station, lhe 
Siva lihgams in all these places have names of their own like 
Mayureswar, Ekchakreswar, Suratheswar etc. etc. ^ 

Festivals, connected with Siva, like Sivaratri, Gajan etc. ta e 
place in almost all the police stations of the district as in other 

parts of West Bengal. . 

Very popular in the district, the worship of Dharma is cele¬ 
brated with much eclat, starting from the full moon day 
of Baisakh and continuing till the full moon day of .ravana, 
throughout the district. Apart from the festival which takes place 
in the urban areas, specially in Suri town, it is organized in 
great numbers in the rural areas. Karidya (J. L. No. 106), 
Kalipur (J.L. No. 105), Purandarpur (J.L. No. 63), Languha 
(J.L. No. 197) in Suri police station, Tantipara (J.L. No. 51) in 
Rainagar police station, Babuijor (J.L. No. 78), Barra (J.L 
No. 82), Sira (J.L. No. 104), Bhadulia (J.L. No. 58) in Khayrasol 
police station, Belia (J.L. No. 193), Iswanpur (J.L. No 155) 
in Sainthia police station, Barasangra (J.L. No. 53), Kaligram 
(J. L. No. 54) in Ahmadpur police station, Surul (J. L. No. 104) 
in Bolpur police station and Jaidev-Kenduli (J. L. No. 63) in 
Jlambazar police station-all in rural areas, have either Dharma- 
rajthakur in some improvised temple located there or festivals in 
the name of Dharmarajthakur take place there every year. The 
main features of the festival in the district are that it is popular 
among the non-Brahmins of whom Hadis, Dorns, Bauns, fisher¬ 
men. weavers constitute the main classes. The folkish traits like 
Chadak, Gajan, Bdnphoda and Sorh form parts of the festivals 
connected with the worship. Having no image of the deity, 
stonepieces, and sometimes, images of tortoises stand for Dharma¬ 
rajthakur. The said god is also found associated with Manasa, 
Chandi or K?’i, standing for female energy. 

It may, in this connection, be stated that Dharma worship is 
a feature of the entire Radha area. Bereft of Hindu ideas of 
higher order, the worship is an admixture of the relics of dead 
Buddhism, popular Hindu ideas and practices and tribal beliefs 
and ceremonies. Thus, it is not purely Buddhist Hindu or 
autochthonous in origin and nature, but is an admixture of all. 


i* S. ftasgupta—op. cit. p. 260. 


11 


Dharma 

worship 


162 


BIRBHUM 


Chandi is considered to be a Sakta deity of non-Aryan origin. 
Although worships of Chandi are held independently at Krishnapur 
(J. L. No. 114) and Bhabaniganj in Khayrasol police station, she 
is generally associated with Dharmarajthakur as sakti is with 
Siva. She also appears in folkish forms in different places of 
the district bearing names like Payrachandi, BjTaghrachandi, 
Barahichandi, Sonaichandi etc. 

Although non-Aryan features have been observed in Manasa, 
she is traditionally considered to be goddess of the snakes. In 
the district independent worship of Manasa takes place at 
Jamalpur (J. L. No. 92) in Khayrasol police station, Gangapur 
(J. L. No. 94) in Ilambazar police station, Kumira (J. L. No. 57) 
and Saota (J. L. No. 59) in Nanur police station. She is also 
worshipped with Dharmarajthakur as the Scikti of the latter. 

A peculiar feature of the district is that at a number of places 
the worship of Brahmadaitya or Brahmadatyi takes place some 
time every year. The centre of attraction is a tree haunted by 
the ghost of a Brahman. The popular belief is that a worship 
at the spot ensures cure from disease, fulfilment of a desire etc. 
The pilgrims lift a handful of earth from a place and drop at 
another in the site. Such worship takes place at Ajoypur (J. L. 
No. 12), Nagari (J. L. 189) in Suri police station, Dighalgr^m 
(J. L. No. 26) in Mahammad Bazar police station, Kasba (J. L. 
No. 16) in Bolpur police station etc. 

Islam spread to this area perhaps in the 13th century A.D. 
when the district passed under Muslim rule. At that time 
Lakhanor or Lakhnur was an important frontier post of the 
Muslim rulers of this region which place has now been traced in 
the present day Rajnagar. The Pathan Jagirdars of Rajnagar 
kept guard on their frontier principalities and 4hey continued to 
do so even during the Mughal regime. Some of these rulers 
were benevolent, and the spread of Islam was facilitated by their 
generous help towards construction of various ivfuslim institu¬ 
tions like Madrasas, mosques etc. 

Sufis, divided into several orders, entered Bengal after helping 
the spread of Islam in Northern India, perhaps even before the 
Muslim conquest. The Sufiistic custom of song and dance 
which helps one into passing away of consciousness in mystic 
union with God through spiritual guides (Murshids or Saikhs) 
appealed to the common folk already knowing the Buddhist and 
Hindu Sahajiya cult having similar ideas. 


PEOPLE 


163 


The Sufis might have also converted the existing local precep¬ 
tors and turned their seats of worship into dargahs to help in 
the spread of Islam. 

In popular parlance the Sufis came to be called Pirs, and the 
seats of Pirs were venerated by the common folk. 

Even to this day a number of fairc and festivals are held in 
the district in honour of the Sufis or Pirs of the middle ages. 
Festivals in memory of Chand Pir take place at Alinagar (J. L. 
No. 23) in Mahammad Bazar police station in January-February 
every year. Similarly, Fakir Saheb’s fair takes place in March- 
April every year at Islampur (J. L. No. 140) in Dubrajpur police 
station, and Burapir’s fair takes place at Bara (J. L. No. 107) 
in Nalhati police station every year in February-March. Khusti- 
Kuri (J. L. No. 17) in Ilambazar police station is again hallowed 
by the memory of a saint called Saiyad Shah Abdullah Kirmani 
of the 17th century A.D. who had powers over serpents and 
his name is repeated in formulas of enchantment even to this 
day. Makhdumnagar in Mayureshwar police station has a tomb 
of a saint, Makhdum Saiyid Shah Zahir-ud-din of the 16th 
century which is frequented by pilgrims for relief from ailments. 
The tomb of another saint Shah Mahbub or Data Sahib, who 
died in A.D. 1892, is also visited by many votaries even to this 
day, which is in Patharchapri (J. L. No. 24) in Suri police station. 

Christianity spread to the region through the activities of the 
Christian Missionary societies during early British rule. The 
local Baptist Mission, a branch of the Serampore Mission, was 
the oldest Christian Mission at work in Birbhum. 1 They were 
possibly attracted by the large number of tribal folk inhabiting 
the district, some of whom were converted to the new religion 
through the endeavours of the missionaries. Doctors Carey and 
Marshman of the Serampore Mission sent the earliest missionary 
Mr. James Williamson to the district, who was an Assistant 
Surgeon at tlie Suri Jail. 3 The other mission at work there was 
the Methodist Episcopal Mission, which started work at Bolpur 
at a later period. 

According to the Census of 1961, Santals numbering 521 be¬ 
long to the Christian community. 


1 L.S.S.O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1910. 

PP- 3 i- 2 . 

•2 1<><^ cit. 




Christianity 


% 


164 


BIRBHUM 


Caste 

Hindus 


Brahmins 


Kayasthas 


Craftsmen 1 

Malakars 




Hindus are usually divided into three broad classes: the Varna 
Hindu, the Nabasakha and the Jal-achal (untouchable) castes. 
Brahmins, Kayasthas and Vaidyas belong to the first category. 
Traditional trading castes like Gandhavaniks and Tambulivaniks, 
except Subarnavaniks, and the artisan castes like Tantubavas, 
Kumbhakaras and Karmakaras are in the Nabasakha sreni. The 
Jal-achal classes are to be found in the President of India’s 
schedule for backward classes, the people being called ‘Scheduled 
Castes.’ 

The Hindus of the district form 72.17 per cent of the total 
population. In 1951 they comprised 72.60 per cent of the district 
population. In the 1951-61 decade they have registered a 
growth rate of 35 per cent over their number in 1951. The per¬ 
centage distribution of the Hindus in different police stations are 
as follows: Suri 80.98; Rajnagar 90.30; Mahammad Bazar 77.65; 
Sainthia 86.03; Dubrajpur 76.08; Khayrasol 84.15; Ilambazar 
62.64; Bolpur 85.03; Labhpur 77.32; Nanur 73.61; Mayureswar 
79.77; Rampurhat 70.30; Nalhati 53.96; and Murarai 40.79. 

The Brahmins of the district belong to Rdclhi Srem and are 
spread over the district. The Hetampur Raj family, however, 
belongs to Srotriya class. Bhavadeva Bhatta of Siddhala, sup¬ 
posed to be a village in the district, is the traditional Radii! 
Brahmin of the Savarna Caudhuri group, hailing from Kanya- 
kubja during the regime of Ballalasena. 

Kayasthas of the district belong to the uttara-rddhi class and 
are spread over the district. They form an important part of 
the Varna Hindu society and differ very little from the Brahmins 
in economic and occupational status. «- 

The Malakars are a class of people engaged in making com¬ 
plicated decorations with natural flowers, keeping flower gardens 
and making exquisite ornaments and decorations in sola (aeschy- 
nomene aspera, linn, pith), encrusted with sequins, wires and 
spring coils, and Dak (coloured or enamelled, thin mica foils) 
for religious, marriage and other purposes. They are both 
gardeners and interior decorators, and are to be found at 
Nischinta (J. L. No. 28) in Khayrasol police station, Paikar (J. L. 
No. 76) in Murarai police station, Mahula (J. L. No. 30) and 
Mallarpur (J. L. No. 22) in Mayureswar police station, Dubraj- 


1 A. Mitra — The Tribes and Castes of West Bengal. Calcutta 1953. 
PP- -’ 99 - 34 1 - 


PEOPLE 


165 


pur (J. L. No. 137) and Balijuri (J. L. No. 21) in Dubrajpur 
police station, Rajnagar and Suri town. 

Sankhakars or Sankharis deal in conch-shell by cleaning it by Sankhakars 
filing, producing round rings with the help of a crescent shaped 
saw and by shaping the rough round slices of conch-shells into 
bangles and engraving decorative designs on the outer side of 
them and by decorating conches used as blowing horns. 

Some such families of Sankhakars are to be found at Karidhya 
(J. L. No. 106) in Suri police station and Baram (J. L. No. 139) 
in Mahammad Bazar police station. 

Caste-guild workers of different classes are to be found in the Caste-guild 

district. They are mainly engaged in home industries, and the Workers, 

avocations they follow are traditional. 

Kumbhakaras, doing terracotta dolls and idols and Kumbhakaras 
clay images, are also to be found in the district. At Mahulara 
(J. L. No. 189) in Sainthia police station the Kumbhakaras are 
engaged in household pottery, and at Rajnagar they make 
coloured dolls and toys. 

Sutradharas or architects and wood-carvers traditionally work Sutradharas 
on wood, stone, clay and with paints. In Birbhum they did 
numerous terracotta reliefs and plaques on temples in the past. 

Now they are mainly engaged in wood-work and can be found 
at Majhgram (J. L. No. 72), Dubrajpur (J. L. No. 137) and Kota 
(Sirsha) (J. L. No. 158) in Dubrajpur police station, Rajnagar 
(J. L. No. 38), Khayradihi (J. L. No. 50) and Tantipara (J. L. 

No. 51) in Rajnagar police station, Karidhya (J. L. No. 106), 

Brojergram (J. L. No. 104) and Kalipur (J. L. No. 105) in Suri 
police station, Gopalpur (J. L. No. 6) in Khayrasol police station 
and Sonj (J. L. No. 66) in Mayureswar police station. 

Kangsakaras, • makers of Kansha, an alloy, are one of the Kangsakaras 
carftsmen dealing in metals in the district. They make religious 
wares, as also household utensils, and are to be found at Lokpur 
(J. L. No. f4) in Khayrasol police station and Tinkarbeta (J. L. 

No. 62) in llambazar police station. 

4,21,344 persons (of whom 7.32 per cent are literate against Scheduled 

Offstcs 

22.09 per cent literacy of the total population) belong to the 
Scheduled Castes in the district forming 29.14 per cent of the 
district population (14,46,158). The rural-urban ratio of these 
people in the district is 94.87 to 5.24; the same proportion of 
the total population being 93.03 to 6.97. In the rural and urban # 
.sectors 29.71 and 21.45 per cent people respectively belong to • 

Scheduled Castes. For every 10,000 persons of the following 



166 


B 1 RBHUM 




Scheduled 

Castes 

village's 


Scheduled 

Castes 

communities 


Scheduled Castes in West Bengal, 4,281 Mals, 2,559 Doms, 1,429 
Chamars, 1,330 Sunris (excluding Saha), 1,306 Haris, 924 Bagdis, 
822 Bauris, 587 Lohars, 199 Jelia Kaibartas, 151. Dhobas, 102 
Namasudras, 95 Poundras, 56 Jhalomalos, 46 ..Rajbansis, 30 
Paliyas and 18 Kaoras belong to Birbhum district. 6-12 per cent 
of the total Scheduled Castes of the State lives in this district. 
They live mostly in Sadar subdivision accounting for nearly 61.11 
per cent of the district’s total Scheduled Castes population, and 
in Rampurhat subdivision there live 38.89 per cent of the total 
Scheduled Castes of the district. 

Apart from large concentrations of Scheduled Castes people 
in many villages of the district there are some villages where 
the entire population belongs to the Scheduled Castes. They 
are Meheran (J. L. No. 44), Changuria (J. L. No. 76), Dharampur 
(J. L. No. 183), Murulia Chank (J. L. No. 196) in Suri police 
station, Malkura (J. L. No. 55), Amla Chaturi (J. L. No. 86) 
in Rajnagar police station, Dhatrabandi (J. L. No. 42), 
Bamundiha (J. L. No. 92), R.aspur (J. L. No. 101) in Mahammad 
Bazar police station, Chak Amaipur (J. L. No. 133), Byaspur 
(J. L. No. 218) in Sainthia police station, Chak Jitua (J. L. 
No. 36), Chak Balaram (J. L. No. 46), Raghunathpur (J. L. 
No. 101), Noapara (J. L. No. 123), Bhaluka (J. L. No. 207), 
Paduma (J. L. No. 211) in Dubrajpur police station, Mujrakonda 
(J. L. No. 35), Raypur (J. L. No. 47), Hatikata (J. L. No. 53), 
Madanpur (J. L. No. 64), Hanulia (J. L. No. 66), Simsa (J. L. 
No. 86), Maldiha (J. L. No. 88), Brajadihi (J. L. No. 91), Meher- 
pur (J. L. No. 93), Sermara (J. L. No. 127) in Khayrasol police 
station, Kamaipur (J. L. No. 97) in Ilambazar police station, 
Bidyadharpur (J. L. No. 34) in Bolpur police station, Uttar 
Ishakpur (J. L. No. 87) in Labhpur police station, Chak Muitin 
(J. L. No. 71) in Nanur police station. Paisa (J. L. No. 55), 
Madhya Gopalpur (J. L. No. 69), Nischintapur (J.,_L. No. 81), 
Mohilapara (J. L. No. 165), Bara Chauki (J. L. No. 173) in 
Rampurhat police station, Alalpur (J. L. No. 15), Erangi (J. L. 
No. 38), Laskarpur (J. L. No. 51), Bhatpara (J. L. No. 61), 
Kanupur (J. L. No. 87), Parkuta (J. L. No-. 138) in Nalhati 
police station and Mukundapur (J. L. No. 11), Rajchandrapur 
(J. L. No. 21), Pera (J. L. No. 22), Bhogpur (J. L. No. 129) in 
Murarai police station. 

According to the Census-of 1961 there are 41,193 Bauris, 
1,01,384 Bagdis, 336 Baitis, 223 Bediyas, 11 Beldars, 4234 


PEOPLE 


167 



Bhuimalis, 1,801 Bhuiyas, 9 Binds, 56,688 Chamars, 2,331 
Dhobas, 38,852 Doms, 7 Dosadhs, 1,023 Doais, 54 Ghasis, 18 
Gonrhis, 16,440 Haris, 2,338 Kaibartas, 383 Jhalomalos, 216 
Kaoras, 2,283 Keots, 520 Khairas, 352 Koches, 17,767 Komais, 

155 Kotals,* 6 Lalbegis, 4,904 Lohars, 69 Mushahars, 1,616 
Mahars, 50,384 Mals, 49 Mallahs, 505 Mehtors, 7,405 Nama- 
sudras, 9 Nuniyas, 327 Pasis, 220 Paliyas, 53 Patnis, 8,331 Pods, 

356 Rajwars, 5,575 Rajbansis, 14,211 Sunris, 418 Turis, 464 
Tiyars in the district. 

The table in Appendix III would reveal the number of some Distribution 
select Scheduled Castes people as spread over in the different police Nations pollce 
stations of the district. The table would reveal that Chamars and 
Bagdis are spread over all the thanas while Bauris and Doms are 
to be found only in Murarai police station. Hadis are spread over 
in the district except in Mahammad Bazar, Khayrasol, Rampurhat, 

Murarai and Rajnagar police stations while Dhobas are only to 
be found in Suri police station. Bhuiyas are likewise to be found 
only in Rampurhat police station. The percentage of Scheduled 
Castes population to total population in different police stations 
is as follows: Suri 30.92; Rajnagar 35.46; Mahammad Bazar 
27 # .01; Sainthia 32.19; Dubrajpur 34.50; Khayrasol 34.07; 

Ilambazar 24.74; Bolpur 24.36; Labhpur 27.86; Nanur 28.95; 
Mayureswar 29.22; Rampurhat 29.92; Nalhati 29.67; Murarai 
23.48. 

Bagdis form the largest scheduled caste population of the dis- Bagdis 
trict. In 1872 they numbered 56,094 in the district, which figure 
rose to 8&342 in 1901, came down to 87,519 in 1931, and then 
again rose to 1,01,384 in 1961. A major cultivating fishing caste 
of the district, also doing menial work, they were supposed to 
be the remnant of an aboriginal race, who married low caste 
Hindus and later became bearers of palanquins and fishermen. 

It was also supposed in the Census report of 1901 that the caste 
got its name form Bagri or southern Bengal, the old division of 
Ballala Sena’s kingdom. The predominant sub-castes of the 
Bagdis are Khetri, Kusmetia, Trayodas, Noda and Tentulia, the 
last one belonging to the highest order among them. A Bagdi 
cannot marry outside his sub-caste. 

The Lets, a caste peculiar to Birbhum, have been grouped 
with the Bagdis. They are regarded as a sub-caste of the . 

Bagdii, and have two exogamous divisions, Kashyap and 





3 


Bauris 


Muchis 


iConais 


birbhum 

as the Bagdis.'° ^ CdS ' eS ' They follow the same avocations 

stations, B are 1 iT m ilX' , to!"ped L whh U the a B d ri May " reswar P o!i “ 
the Bagdis, they do not • ^ a ^ dls< { An offshoot of 

work as cultivators and day-Srere. 11 “ d generall J' 

■ TheZ'LZed 2ZTL a %2 m 36T,‘ • T' 6 ° f the distrirt - 

and 41,,93 in mi ] Lppo Sed t o t V” T 36 ’" 8 in 1931 

arc good cultivators, earth-workers and'' oaf ' th * y 

Traces of totemism still survive lu d paIanc l u 'n-bearers. 
backed heron and the dog al In Z u- * f ° r the - d ' 
dung. They are divided Into f n , ^Z ° bjectlon to tou ch horse- 
Mulo, Sikharia and Dule- and Ilh (f/raks ^ namely ’ Mano, 

to the district from the Adjacent bIZ^ ^7 ° riginally come 
Apart from other Hindu ai J kura and p urulia districts. 

?*""« »i« ..“r “*<■•> 

‘S,\TZ m B “” *"» " *i;s.: 
*££ t zz %—*«> — 

in 1901, 45,395 in 1931 and 56 fiss l numbered 41,282 

have been considered originallv io h” k Although Muchis 
they consider themselves to be « “ ° f ‘ he Chamars - 

work with raw hide and whose fem iT™" T ^ Chamars ' who 
they are tanners, saddlers shoe m aS midwives « while 

makers. They have several suL " 5 ' musicians a " d basket- 
Chasa, Kinur and Betna The 1V1S !° ns ' nam ely, Barabhagiya, 
Saivites, and most of the people be ? n y ° f ‘ he Muchis are 
sion are Vaishnavites belong,ng to the Betna subdivi- 

casVe a ';i°p™ 7a" d 8 Srict 0f C eriCali L imPOrtant Schedukd 

38,697 in 1901, 40,999 in 1931 and in l872 - 
the Bagdis in physical aspects and ' a ln 961 ' S ™ilar to 
engaged in fishing, boati ’™ de °‘ iiv mg, they are 

originated from the same stock J7 i a " d ma ^ have 

Xsr ey — — a-r^h 

districts. 18 They" 1 numblred^ 1 ^ 5 ^ 7 Murshida bad 

>7-767 in 1961 in , he district Th ^'v' 4 ' 394 in 1931 and 

castes, namely, Chasis and KurariJs Th, ' nt ° tW ® Sub ' 

,he tormer being mainly 


c 


PEOPLE 


169 


cultivators and occasionally fishermen or field labourers, and the 
latter being drummers, dealers in hide and labourers. They 
worship among other Hindu gods and goddesses, Manasa and 
Dharmaraj wit% much enthusiasm. 

Hadis of th,e district numbered 21,751 in 1872, 27,634 in 1901, 
22,321 in 1931 and 16,440 in 1961. The decrease in numbers 
over the years may be due to the returning of many Hadis as 
Bhuinmalis in the Censuses. They tap date trees, make bamboo- 
combs, cultivate lands and are musicians, palanquin-bearers, 
syces and scavengers. Mehtor is one of their subcastes who 
removes night-soil, but does not remove dead animals. Bhuin¬ 
malis act as cultivators. Females of Dai or Phul Hari act as 
midwives, while Kahar-Haris are palanquin-bearers. They wor¬ 
ship Kali, Mangalchandi, Sitala and other Hindu deities. 

Sunris of the district including Sahas numbered 16,948 in 1901. 
Since 1911 Sunris were enumerated excluding the Sahas as the 
latter claimed that the former were a different caste. In 1931 
the Sunris of the district numbered 14,226 and in 1961 the figures 
stood at 14,211. Their original profession was manufacture and 
sale of spirituous liquors, but many of them are now engaged 
in trade and commerce. They are comparatively advanced in 
education. 

Doms are an important class of people of the district. They 
numbered 34,897 in 1872, 40,666 in 1901, 36,278 in 1931 and 
38,852 in 1961. Also known as Chandals or Dhangads. Doms 
are considered to have originated from a Dravidian menial caste, 
or an aboriginal race or a pre-Dravidian stock. According to 
popular traditions they were a martial race in the middle ages 
guarding the western border of Bengal under the local chiefs. 
They are divided *into different local groups in different States 
having nearly no connexion with one another. They are mainly 
sweepers and remove night-soil and dead bodies in some places. 
Some also mafe baskets and mats. Those among them who act 
as musicians are called Bajcinia Doms. They have also taken 
to agriculture and many of them work as landless day-labourers. 

They are mostly Vaishnavites, and in addition to Radha and 
Krsna they worship Dharmaraja. A special class of Doms, 
called Dharma Pandits, act as priests of Dharmathakur. 

1,06,860 persons (of whom 3.40% are literate against literacy 
to the extent of 22.09% of total population) belonged to the 
Scheduled Tribes of the district forming 7.39% of the district 
populafion. The rural-urban ratio is 98.73: 1.27 per 100 


« 


« 


Hadis 


Sunris 


Doms 


Scheduled * 

Tribes 




170 


BIRBHUM 


Scheduled 

Tribes 

villages 


Scheduled 

Tribes 

communities 


Distribution 
in the police 
stations 


whereas the same ratio for total population of the district is 
93.03 : 6.97 per 100. For every 10,000 persons of the following 
Scheduled Tribes in West Bengal, 889 Koras, 779 Santals, 311 
Mahalis, 227 Malpaharias, 9 Oraons, 1 Munc^a and 1 Lodha 
belonged to the Birbhum district. 

Apart from great concentrations of the Scheduled Tribes, 
mainly Santals, in some villages, there are some villages in the 
district whose entire population belongs to the Scheduled Tribes. 
They are Raypur (J. L. No. 176), Maligram (J. L. No. 67), 
Sirsha (j. L. No. 184), Chandipur (J. L. No. 191) in Suri police 
station, Hirapur (J. L. No. 7), Manoharpur (J. L. No. 104) in 
Rajnagar police station, Kusuma Kandar (J. L. No. 45), Kalidaha 
Khayrapara (J. L. No. 95), Kalidaha (J. L. No. 96), Kaniara 
(J. L. No. 119), Simulia (J. L. No. 138), Amaipur (J. L. No. 154) 
in Mahammad Bazar police station, Patharghata (J. L. No. 57), 
Uttar Hajrapur (J. L. No. 72), Chak Mahespur (J. L. No. 125), 
Syampur (J. L. No. 146), Suraipur (J. L. No. 206), Dakshinsiur 
(J. L. No. 215) in Sainthia police station, Pirojpur (J. L. No. 14), 
Kedarbandh (J. L. No. 28), Asunsuli (J. L. No. 44), Boskanda 
(J. L. No. 56), Metegaon (J. L. No. 65), Radhamadhabpur (J. L. 
No. 88), Maniram (J. L. No. 102), Kanchannagar (J. L. No. 234) 
in Dubrajpur police station, Ahmadpur (J. L. No. 56), Domaha 
Tat (J. L. No. 117) in Khayrasol police station, Mundira (J. L. 
No. 67) in Ilambazar police station, Danbaripur (J. L. No. 22), 
Gobindapala (J. L. No. 25), Chak Pali (J. L. No. 49), Asdulla- 
pur (J. L. No. 59) in Bolpur police station, Srikrishnapur (J. L. 
No. 23) in Labhpur police station, Prahladpur (J. L. No. 28), 
Salgaria (J. L. No. 29), Khojapur (J. L. No. 33), Purandarpur 
(J. L. No. 34) in Rampurhat police station and Chandanpur (J. 
L. No. 4), Lakargram (J. L. No. 10) in Murarai police station. 

According to the Census of 1961 there are 1 Bhumij, 
2 Chakmas, 42 Hos, 5,514 Koras, 5 Kherias (Lodhas), 357 Mal¬ 
paharias, 15 Mundas, 93 Maghs, 873 Mahalis, 269 Oraons and 
93,426 Santals in the district. 

The following is a list of two Scheduled Tribes, namely the 
Santals and the Koras, who are the only most numerous Scheduled 
Tribes people inhabiting the district. 


J 


PEOPLE 


171 


DISTRIBUTION OF SELECT SCHEDULED TRIBES PEOPLE IN 


POLICE STATIONS OF 

BIRBHUM DISTRICT 

: 1961 

Name of police station 

Santal 

Kora 

Suri 

6,230 

513 

Rajnagar 

5,701 

372 

Mahammad Bazar 

12,439 

— 

Sainthia 

9,107 

514 

Dubrajpur 

3,829 

— 

Khayrasol 

916 

— 

Ilambazar 

5,519 

338 

Labhpur 

3,066 

261 

Nanur 

1,186 

206 

Mayureswar 

6,819 

701 

Rampurhat 

13,139 

— 

Nalhati 

4,646 

— 

Murarai 

4,266 

694 

Bolpur 

16,563 

1,343 


THE 


Santals came to inhabit the district after the enactment of the 
Permanent Land Settlement Act of 1793. In 1872 there were 
only 6,954 Santals in the district which rose to 47,221 in 1901 
and §4,079 in 1931 and then to 93,426 in 1961. It will be seen 
that during the two 30-year periods namely 1901-31 and 1931-61 
they have increased considerably in numbers in spite of the fact 
that from time to time they have had to migrate elsewhere in 
search of work. In the rural areas they account for 87.51 per 
cent of the total rural Scheduled Tribes population of the dis¬ 
trict. In the urban areas too, Santals account for 88 per cent 
of the total urban Scheduled Tribes people in the district. We 
have already seen that they are mainly distributed in Bolpur, 
Mahammad Bazar, Rampurhat, Sainthia, Mayureswar, Suri, 
Rajnagar and Ilambazar police stations in the district. Speaking 
the Santali language of the northern variety, the Santals have 
shown sign of acculturation to a great extent. Because of the 
impact of external economic, legal and other cultural forces, they 
have considerably changed their mode of living which includes 
their house types, food, dress etc. Although no change i-n their 
rites of passage is noticeable in their daily life in the sphere of 
religion, they have taken to the worship of Kali and attended 
many Hindu festivals in the district. 1 The most important 

1 N. Di^ta Majumder — The Santal : A study in Culture-Change. 

Calcutta, 1956. p. 120. 




Santals 


172 


BIRBHUM 


characteristic in the life of the Santals of Birbhum is that indivi¬ 
dual is gradually gaining a sense of independence there. “This 
growth of independence in the individual may be related to the 
growth of the individual ownership of land, and the opening up 
of new avenues of employment. This has resulted in the indivi¬ 
dual no longer being dependent on either the village community 
or the family.” 1 A large number of Santals have become 
Christians and others Hinduized in the sense that they have 
imbibed certain Hindu manners and customs. A majority of 
them still stick to their age-old customs as it has been said 
“the belief in Thakur and bohgas is still strong ; the most im- 
poitant annual festivals, and the four rites de passage (janam 
chatiar or birth rites, caco chatiar or rites admitting one to 
Santal society as a full member, bapla or marriage and bharidan 
or rites on the occasion of death — Ed.) are still observed in 
every Santal village. The priest and the medicine-man continue 
to act as intermediaries between the people and the beings of 
the supernatural world.” 2 

Next to Santals, Koras form the next major Scheduled Tribes 
people of the district. They account for 14.12 per cent of the 
total urban Scheduled Tribes population of the district. One- 
fourth of them are founo in Bolpur police station where&s in 
Mayureswar and Murarai police stations they form one-eighth 
of their total district population. The population figures of the 
Koras of the district have varied considerably depending from 
the census of 1872 till the census of 1961. They numbered 
3,776 in 1872, 10,267 in 1891, 11,202 in 1901, 9,680 in 1911, 
6,100 in 1921, 8,993 in 1931, 4,685 in 1941, 4,685* in 1951 and 
5,514 in 1961. It has been suggested that the Koras were not 
the autochthones of this State and that they migrated to this 
State from their original homeland in Bihar. 3 It has been 
surmised that the variation of Kora population is due mainly 
to migration rather than growth, the Koras ‘being forced to 
infiltrate into the State because of economic hardship in their 
original homeland. 4 Probably an offshoot of the Munda Tribe, 
the name Kora signifies the occupation of earth-digging and hence 
it has been supposed that the term has been associated with 
sections of different tribes in different areas on their taking up 

1 ibid. p. in. 

2 ibid. p. 123. 

* w Das . ~ T . fie Koras and Some Little Known Communities of 
West Bengal. Calcutta, 1964. p. 13. w 

ibid. p. 14. 

* 


4 


PEOPLE 


173 


the occupation of earth digging as the means of livelihood. 
Although they are expert earth workers, they also work as agri¬ 
culturists in the district doing agricultural work as owner culti¬ 
vators, share croppers or agricultural labourers. According to 
the census of J961, out of 5,322 Koras living in rural areas, 
5,101 were illiterate, 172 were literate (without educational level), 
47 had primary or junior basic standard of education and 2 were 
matriculates or thereabout. In urban areas, out of 192 Koras, 
175 were illiterate, 10 literate (without educational level) and 7 
attaining education up to the primary or junior basic standard. 

According to the Census of 1961 Muslims number 3,99,513 
(2,00,044 males and 1,99,469 females) in the district, of whom 
3,88,152 belong to the rural areas and 11,361 to the urban. 
About 27.63 per cent of the district population are Muslims, 
who are most numerous in Murarai police staticn. Large num¬ 
bers of Muslim population are also to be found in Nalhati and 
Ilambazar police stations. The percentage distribution 1 of the 
Muslims of the district in different police stations is as follows: 
Suri 18.98, Rajnagar 9.69, Mahammad Bazar 22.13, Sainthia 
13.50, Dubrajpur 23.26, Khayrasol 15.85, Ilambazar 37.36. Bol- 
pur 14.84, Labhpur 22.64, Nanur 26.39, Mayureswar 20 10 
Rampurhat 29.02, Nalhati 45.67 and Murarai 59.07. 

In 1951 they numbered 2,86,516 forming 26.86 per cent of the 
district population, and thus they have registered an increase of 
39.44 per cent during the 1951-61 decade in the district. The 
Muslim population *of the district mainly consists of Saikhs, 
Pathans, Saiyyids and Jolahas. 

The word <* Saikh’ means old or doctor in Muslim Law and 
theology. It is supposed that they themselves should achieve 
and train others iif achieving spiritual progress. The word 
Saikh’ has been added to the names of all the Sufis of Bengal, 
who started teaching Islamic principles along with their mystic 
rites. The Saikhs played a prominent role in Bengal society in 
the middle ages by extending Muslim royal power to the State 
and by converting the local people to Islam. But the meaning 
of the term has changed and now signifies in some parts of this 
State the lower class Muslims, may be, converted ones. 2 


Handbook 


' , !* ay Ccnsus 1 9 Gl : West Ren gal District Census 

Birbhum. Calcutta, 1966. p. 49. 

~ SOCial Hist ° ry of the Muslims of Bengal. (Down to a.d 
1 53 °^. Dacca, 1959. pp. 





« 


Haitians 


Saiyyids 


Jolahas 


Christians 


A mixed class: 
Jadupatuas 



174 BIRBHUM 

The term ‘Pathan’ is generally a substitute for the term 
‘Afghan’, but the term gained currency after the overthrow of 
the Afghans from Delhi by the Mughals in A.D. 1526. The 
Afghans subsequently spread over Bengal ayd other parts of 
Eastern India until they were subjugated by the Mughals. 
Possibly from that time onward the pre-Mughal and non-Mughal 
Muslim population came to be called Pathans. 1 

The present day Pathans of the district may be a progeny of 
the selfsame Pathans of the earlier period. 

The Saiyyids are said to be the descendants of the Prophet and 
were looked upon with deep esteem by the common folk. Having 
the largest number in the district, they perhaps came to Bengal 
in different times doing various work. Although not belonging 
to any professional class as such, they are held in esteem ‘because 
of their connexion with the family of the Prophet.’ 2 

Jolahas belong to the professional class of weavers like the 
tailors, painters etc., who, however, form the lower class of 
society. 3 

According to the Census of 1961 Christians number 1,804 
(1,196 males and 608 females) forming 0.12 per cent of the total 
population of the district. Of the Christians 544 males and 583 
females belong to the urban areas. In 1951 they numbered 686 
forming 0.06 per cent of the district population. Meagre though 
they are in numbers in absolute figures, they have recorded a 
growth of 162.97 per cent during the 1951-61 decade. 


Jadupatuas, originally hailing from Manbhum aud the Santa! 
Parganas, are a class of people who are noted for displaying pic¬ 
tures of dead persons to the families concerned. Their main 
field of operation is among the tribals. To them they show the 
pictures of dead persons without the iris of the eyes, who are 
supposed to roam in the dark for want of eye-sTght. They draw 
the iris on payment from the families concerned and thereby 
ensure smooth journey of the dead person to the ether world. 
They occupy a place midway between Hindus and Muslims. 
They believe in Allah and also worship Kali, Manasa and various 
other Hindu deities. By profession they are, however, brass- 
workers making several kinds of brass wares. 


1 ibid. p. 155. * 

2 ibid. p. 150. 

3 ibid. p. 157 . 

•*\ 



PEOPLE 


175 




While Jadupatuas display Yamapata (picture ot nether world), 
the Patuas or Chitrakars paint in miniature on cloth or paper or 
in scrolls, make earthen images, decorate walls with paints and 
engrave on walls in stucco (found only in Birbhum district). 
Their females make earthen dolls and toys or paint on ceremonial 
pottery ( Ghatachitro ) and wooden seats ( Pirichitra ). They follow 
Hindu manners and customs as also a few Muslim customs and 
their marriage takes place within their own society. 

They are to be found at Balia (J. L. No. 4) and Ayas (J. L. 
No. 89) in Rampurhat police station, Pakurhans (J. L. No. 68) 
and Brahmandihi (J. L. No. 7) in Nanur police station, Panuria 
(J7 l. No. 125) in Suri police station, Dadpur (J. L. No. 188) in 
Mayureswar police station, Danrka (J. L. No. 136) in Labhpur 
police station, Kalitha (J. L. No. 73) in Nalhati police station 
and Ahmadpur (J. L. No. 154) in Sainthia police station. 


The Census of 1961 defined a house as a structure or part Social Life 
of a structure inhabited cr vacant, or a dwelling, shop, a shop- Household 
cum-dwelling or a place of business, workshop, school etc. with 
a separate entrance. Commensality was considered to be the 
characteristic feature ot a household or family. 

In Birbhum district 5.2 persons on ithe average lived per 
household in 1961. In the rural and the urban areas the average 
numbers of persons per household were 5.2 and 5.2 respectively. 

The figures compare favourably well with the State averages of 
5.3 for the tyitire State, 5.4 for the rural areas and 4.9 for the 

urban areas. 

It appears that joint family, that cherished institution of this Jomt 
part of the country, is still to be found in the district wheie the 
quantum of such families exceeds the State average. In 1961 
there were 35 married females other than spouses or heads of 
families in 100 households of the district — married females other 
than the spouse or the head of the household signitying cohesion 
of families. In the rural and urban areas such married femajes 
numbered 36 and 33 respectively per 100 households in each 
sector. In 1951, however, they numbered 42 for the entire dis¬ 
trict, 42 for the rural sector and 44 for the urban sector per 
100 households in each case. The declining numbers in 1961 
only point to the comparative dwindling of joint families since 1951. 



176 


BIRBHUM 


In the rural areas of the district the houses are mostly mud- 
walled having thatched roofs. Such houses account for about 95 
per cent of the rural houses in the district. The houses stand 
isolated from one another in the villages, have a central courtyard 
within, and the usual complement of a detached cowshed and out¬ 
houses. Pucca houses are not a very common sight in the rural 
areas, they can mostly be found in the urban areas. 

In the rural areas 97 per cent of the people live in their own 
houses, while in the urban areas 63 per cent of the people live 
in their own houses, the rest living in rented houses. 

Most of the people live in one-roomed houses in the district. 
In the rural areas 61 per cent of the total number of rural house¬ 
holds and in urban areas 57 per cent of the total number of urban 
households live in such houses. Two-roomed houses are occupied 
by 24 per cent of the total number of households in the rural 
areas and 25 per cent of the total number of households in the 
urban areas of the district. In the rural areas 6 per cent of the 
families and in the urban areas 9 per cent of the families live 
in three-roomed houses. In the urban areas, rather than in the 
rural areas, people have more rooms in their houses. 

The following table based on a 20% sample would indicate 
the size of households in relation to persons occupying v such 
households. 

HOUSEHOLDS ON THE BASIS OF NO. OF MEMBERS (BASED ON 20% 
SAMPLE) IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1961 


1-member : 

Total 

All rural 

areas 

All urbi 

areas 

Households 

4,151 

3,780 

371 

Males 

1,680 

1,430 

250 

Females 

2,471 

2,350 

121 

2-3 members : 

Households 

12,026 

11,143 

883 

Males 

15,257 

14,078 

1,179 

Females 

15,345 

14,283 

1,062 

4-6 members : 

Households 

23,842 

22,522 

1,320 

Males 

59,482 

56,142 

3,340 

Females 

59,115 

55,897 

3,218 




House types 


Size of 
houses 


Composition 
of households 



PEOPLE 


177 


* 


HOUSEHOLDS ON THE BASIS OF NO. OF MEMBERS (BASED ON 20% 
SAMPLE) IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1961— (Contd.) 



Total 

All rural 

All urban 

• 


areas 

areas 

7-9 members •: 

Households 

10,597 

9,911 

686 

Males 

41,659 

38,924 

2,735 

Females 

39,940 

37,357 

2,583 

10 members and above : 

Households 

4,216 

3,878 

338 

Males 

26,496 

24,306 

2,190 

Females 

25,261 

23,263 

1,998 


It appears from the foregoing table that households with 4-6 
members are the most numerous (23,842) in the district, followed 
by nuclear families (12,026) of 2-3 members. 

The composition of households may further be studied from 
the table in Appendix IV based on a 20% sample. 

It appears from the table that males are generally the heads 
of * households. Where the heads are females, they are pro¬ 
bably widows inasmuch as male spouses of heads of households 
are insignificant in number (171). Unmarried males and females 
constitute a weighty component of the household. Unrelated 
persons, probably in the form of servants helping the agricultural 
work, are to be found in the rural areas in fair numbers. 

The Census of 1961 grouped persons below 10 years of age 
as not having married. The table 1 in Appendix V furnishes a 
picture of the marital status in the district in 1961. 




\ The table reveals that married status is mostly to be found in the age- 
grox^s, between 25-29 and 40-44. 

t 

12 

- .» • 




Marriage 









* 


PEOPLE 


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APPENDIX V 


182 


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184 BIRBHUM 

APPENDIX 
Table A* 

Distribution of population, sex rates, growth rate and density of population in 

Birbhum District : 1951-71 


Population 1971 

Sex rates 
females per 
1000 males 

Density of 
population 
per sq. km. 

Decennial 
growth rate 
of population 

Persons 

Males Females 

1961 1971 

1961 1971 

1951-61 1961-71 

17,79,805 

9,03,118 8,76,687 

973 971 

318 391 

+ 35.55 +23.07 


Table B* 

Rural and Urban Composition of population in Birbhum District: 1961-71 


Population 1971 


Percentage 
of urban to 
total 

population 

Decennial growth rate 1961-71 

Total Rural 

Urban 

1961 1971 

| 

Total Rural Urban 

17,79,805 16,54,567 

1,25,238 

7.0 7.04 

+23.07 +22.98 +24.28 



Table C* 

u 


Distribution of population by Workers in Birbhum District : 1961-71 



Total 

Population 

Workers 

Percentage of Workers 
to TotahPopulation 


1971 


1961 

1971 

Persons 

Males 

Females 

17,79,805 

9,03,118 

8,76,687 

4,78,442 

4,38,789 

39,653 

31.2 

52.4 

9.5 

26.88 

48.59 

4.52 


*From Provisional Population Totals, Census of India 1971, Paper I of 1971. 


PEOPLE 


Table D** 

Population of Police Stations of Birbhum District: 1971 


Total 

Population 


Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe 
Population Population 


Birbhum District 
Police Stations 
Murarai 
Nalhati 
Rampurhat 
Mayureswar 
Mahammad Bazar 
Rajnagar 
Khayrasol 
Dubrajpur 
Suri 

Ilambazar 

Sainthia 

Bolpur 

Labhpur 

Nanur 


17,75,909 

5,32,697 

1,74,107 

40,671 

1,70,937 

52,687 

2,17,200 

66,359 

1,60,063 

50,406 

80,109 

23,401 

48,683 

16,019 

89,583 

30,658 

1,16,887 

38,707 

1,31,502 

41,083 

84,643 

21,320 

1,27,727 

42,328 

1,36,552 

36,662 

1,13,740 

33,758 

1,24,176 

38,638 


1,25,250 

5,579 

6,021 

14,975 

9,896 

14,514 

7,451 

- 1,434 - 

5,615 * 

10,884 
8,164 
12,855 
21,084 
4,509 
2,269 


**From Final Population Tables, Census of India 1971, Paper I of 1972. 


186 


BIRBHUM 


t 


TABLE E* 
Population by Religious Groups 


Population Hindus L Muslims 

Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females 
Total 17,75,909 9,02,441 8,73,468 6,37,765 6,15,322 2,62,384 2,55,997 

Rural 16,51,137 8,37,543 8,14,594 5,81,835 5,65,425 2,53,056 2,47,533 

Urban 1,24,772 65,898 58,874 55,960 49,897 9,328 8,464 


* From Census of India 1971, Paper 2 of 1972 (Religion) 


J + 


PEOPLE 


187 


in Birbhom District: 1971 


Christians 


Sikhs 


Buddhists 


Jains 


Other 

Religions & 
Persuasions 


Ma lesFemale sMales Females Males Females Males Females Males F-m7e7MateT 


Religion 
not stated 


Females 


1,631 

1,633 

56 

47 

50 

42 

520 

424 

1,471 

1,515 

22 

18 

32 

26 

126 

74 

160 

118 

34 

29 

18 

13 

394 

350 




S 


# 








s 




Distribution of Working population by Agricultural and other Workers in Birbhum District: 1971 


188 


BIRBHUM 



CHAPTER IV 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 

Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people of the Land rbcla- 
district, the majority of the working population being cultivators utilization 
and agricultural labourers. According to Census 1961, the total 
number of workers of the district was 4,51,314, constituting 
31.21 per cent of the total population of the district. Of those 
workers, again, the cultivators and agricultural labourers account 
for 13.63 per cent and 9.55 per cent of the total population 
respectively. It may be stated that every three out of any group 
of four workers are found to be in the agricultural sector either 
as a cultivator or as an agricultural labourer. On the whole, 
about 74 per cent of the total working population of the district 
are engaged in agriculture as against 54 per cent in the State 
of West Bengal. The total cultivable area of the district is 
9,69,400 acres (4,55,244 hectares), while waste land including Cultivable 
cultivable and unculturable waste comprises 71,256 acres (29,084 vvaste 
hectares). The area reserved for forests is about 28,744 acres. 

The total cultivable area under paddy is about 8,00,000 acres 
(3,26,531 hectares), while the area under crops other than paddy 
is 70,000 acres ( 28,572 hectares). 

The statement given below shows the pattern of land utiliza¬ 
tion in the district in some selected years between 1947 and 1963. 

LAND UTILISATION IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT 


Total area of the 
district 

(in thousand acres) 

1947-48 1952-53 1960-61 

1,115.3 1,115.5 1,115.5 

1961-62 

1,115.5 

1962-63 

1,115.5 

Area under forests 

— 

— 

9.9 

9.9 

12.7 

Area not available 
for cultivation. 

141.9 

191.1 

175.4 

175.4 

173.2 

Other cultivated 
land excluding 
current fallow 

158.3 

60.7 

36.3 

37.5 

37.3 

Current fallow 

35.0 

12.1 

44.7 

49.6. 

47.5 

Net area sown 

780.1 

851.6 

849.2 

843.1 

844.8 

Area sown more 
than once 

44.5 

90.1 

110.1 

100.5 

100.0 

Total cropped area 

824.6 

941.6 

959.3 

943.6 

944.8 


190 


BIRBHUM 


The cultivable waste lying scattered in different areas can 
hardly be utilized profitably for extension of cultivation as they 
do not usually form any large blocks which can be easily brought 
under plough. Even the slightest progress in this respect cannot 
be made without considerable expenditure. The cultivators, 
however, are being given land improvement loans and land recla¬ 
mation loans for reclaiming cultivable waste land in small pockets 
where it appears to be economical for the farmers. 

The problem of soil erosion in this district is being tackled 
jointly by the Departments of Forests and Agriculture and Com¬ 
munity Development. Physiographically, the district can be 
divided into three broad zones. Along the western border of the 
Rampurhat sub-division there are some isolated abrupt hillocks. 
Danga lands are scanty, and wherever they can be found are 
wholly denuded. Whenever dry cultivation is attempted, the top 
soil is disturbed, leading to sheet erosion. Notwithstanding the 
attempts at cultivation, erosion has advanced and formed gullies. 
There are also some hillocks, generally surrounded on all sides 
by a stretch of high ground where cultivation is not attempted. 
The second zone comprises the extensive danga lands, generally 
along the western border of the district from Rampurhat police 
station southwards, extending to the east. In this zone, soil 
erosion is acute, the area of forests in this tract being only 50 
square miles. The quantity of uncultivable land is maximum in 
this tract in the west of the district. 

The adverse effect of soil erosion is evident from an analysis 
of the figures of land use and crop yield for the last few years. 
According to the settlement report of 1924-32, the total cultivated 
area of the district was 7,68,900 acres, the extent of cultivable 
lands including fallows was 1,61,398 acres and the area not avail¬ 
able for cultivation was 1,85,194 acres. In 1946-47, the total 
cultivated area was 7,26,900 acres, the amount of cultivable land 
including fallows was 2,79,300 acres, and the extent of land not 
available for cultivation was 1,09,100 acres. These figures lead 
to the conclusion that during the period, both the cultivated area 
and the area not available for cultivation have decreased, while 
there is much more fallowing in recent years to enable the land 
to recuperate. This naturally leads to the conclusion that the 
land is progressively losing fertility. In 1871, the yield of paddy 
per acre was 28 maunds. In 1885, it was reported to be 22, while 
the yield per acre for 1924-32 was 18 according to the Settlement 
Report. In 1946-47, the yield was reported to be 16 maunds of 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


191 


paddy. This is in spite of the fact that the area under aman has 
greatly increased and uneconomical lands were left out of 
cultivation. 

Severe soil erosion, which is a great problem, has not yet 
been solved satisfactorily. The measures adopted in recent years 
by the State’s Forest Department to halt the fearful soil erosion 
has been discussed separately under the section Forestry and 
need not be elaborated here. The State’s Agriculture Depart¬ 
ment, on the other hand, has also made some progress lately in 
respect of contour bunding and gully-plugging as a measure to 
combat erosion. The progress made in this respect is shown in 
the statement below: 1 

PROGRESS OF SOIL CONSERVATION WORK IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 



1966-69 



Contour Bunding 

Gully Plugging 

Year 

(in acres) 

(in number) 

1966-67 

364.14 

9 

1967-68 

1573.17 

28 

1968-69 

1886.77 

10 


The district, having for the most part, a porous soil and low Irrigation 
water-holding capacity, irrigation facilities are of great im¬ 
portance. In the past, the district had to suffer occasionally for 
want of timely and adequate rainfall and owing to lack of irriga¬ 
tion facilities it faced the threat of crop failure. Before the 
implementation of the Mayurakshi Project, bund and tank irriga¬ 
tion were usually practised. During the rainy season, the culti¬ 
vators would divide their fields into numerous little plots, each 
with a raised balik, to retain the rain water. Each plot was 
thus a small reservoir, and the lower fields could be irrigated 
by letting water into them from those at a higher level. In the 
pre-Independence days there were a few large-size tanks in the 
district for the purpose of irrigation but smaller tanks were more 
numerous. Well irrigation was not practised except in the case 
of garden produce, and tanks, large and small, were the usual 
source from which the fields could be watered. 

' _ * _ 


1 Source : Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


Old irrigation 
schemes 


t 


192 BIRBHUM 

Up to August 1947, there were only one major irrigation and 
one minor irrigation scheme in the district. The major irrigation 
work was the Bakreswar Canal with a maximum discharge of 
89.60 cusecs, the supply being drawn from the Bakreswar river. 
The length of the canal in 1953 was 23 miles and 1,915 feet 
including 4,515 feet of distributaries. The area to be irrigated 
under the scheme was 10,000 acres, the actual irrigated area 
during the period being 7,464 acres for Kharif and 38 acres for 
Rabi. This scheme was subsequently classed as unproductive. The 
Kashinala irrigation scheme, which was a minor scheme, was 
maintained by the Government. The canal with a length of 
about 3 miles and 1,564 feet in 1953 commanded an irrigated 
area of 1,367 acres for Kharif and 94 acres for Rabi. This 
scheme was classed as productive. 1 The following statement 
gives an idea of the net area irrigated as percentage to net area 
sown in the district for the period from 1947-48 to 1954-55. 2 

NET AREA IRRIGATED AS PERCENTAGE TO NET AREA SOWN 
IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1947-55 

1947-48 1948-49 1949-50 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 

KJ 

42.0 41.4 65.6 65.0 69.5 45.4 44.6 48.6 

It may be added that the whole picture of irrigation system 
has changed with the completion of the Mayurakshi Project. The 
entire cropped area of the district now may be broadly divided 
into five categories according to the principal sources of irriga¬ 
tion. While a good portion of the cropped area comes under the 
Mor or Mayurakshi River Project, there are other important 
irrigation schemes, such as river lift schemes, deep and shallow 
tube well schemes and tank irrigation schemes, which account for 
supply of irrigation water in areas not covered by the Mor 
Project. The statement below shows the irrigation resources of 
the district at a glance during Kharif and Rabi seasons for the 
years 1966-67 and 1967-68. 3 


1 Census 1951 : District Hand Book : Birbhum, Calcutta, 1953. 
pp. xxxvi-xxxvii. 

2 S. N. Mukherjee — A brief Agricultural Geography of West Bengal. 

Calcutta, 1956. p. 47. _ . _ . 

3 Source: Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


Vo 


t 


L 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


193 


IRRIGATION RESOURCES OF BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1966-68 



1966-67 

1967-68 


In Khar if 

In Rabi 

- 

season 

season 


(in acres) 

(in acres) 

Irrigated area 

Under Mor Project 

3,59,039.00 

40,000.00 (approx.) 

Total area under 
tanks, kandar & 
small irrigation 
schemes etc. 

16,779.00 

2,022.00 

Under shallow irri¬ 
gation tube wells 

3,500.00 

3,500.00 

Under minor irri¬ 
gation schemes 

1,200.00 

300.00 

Under river pump 
irrigation schemes 

4,000.00 

4,000.00 


The two important rivers which pass through the district 
the Mayurakshi or Mor and the A joy. These rivers during 
rainy season grow much broader and deeper, and after a heavy 
shower, rise quickly to a considerable height overtopping their 
banks and inundating the surrounding areas. In the dry weather 
their beds are broad expanses of sand with small streams trickling 
down the centre. The district is also drained by some other 
rivers and rivulets' of which the Hingla, the Bakreswar, the 
Brahmani, the Dwarka and the Kopai may be mentioned. As 
the river system has been dealt with elaborately in Chapter I, 
we may only add here that much of the river system has been 
greatly affected by the operation of the Mor River Project. 

Birbhum being almost wholly an aman growing area, the need 
for water is absolutely necessary. As aman crop, depends solely 
upon water for its very existence from the time it comes out 
as a seedling till it attains its maturity, the demand for irrigation 
water, especially, at a time when there is erratic distribution of 
rainfall or insufficient rainfall, has always been considered very 
urgent. 0 This is why the Mor or Mayurakshi Project with a 
command area of 853 square miles within the district ajid com¬ 


are Irrigation 


the 


facilities: 


rivers 



194 


BIRBHUM 


prising the police stations of Murarai, Nalhati, Rampurhat, 
Mayureswar, Mahammad Bazar, Suri, Sainthia, Nanur, Labhpur, 
llambazar, Bolpur and Dubrajpur has come as a boon to the 
people. The project has been described elaborately in all its 
aspects in Chapter 1 and we need not repeat the same here. It 
may only be stated that though the main crop of the command 
area is aman paddy, some aus paddy is cultivated in the area 
in fields lying comparatively on a higher level, while Rabi crop 
has also been grown in a very small percentage of the command 
area. 

The cropping pattern of the district did not change significantly 
until 1964-65, when it was possible to bring nearly 12,000 acres 
under double cropping in the command area. Prior to this, only 
2,000 acres or so could be covered under double cropping. Since 
1964-65, it has been possible for the Project authorities to assure 
irrigation for a larger area during Rabi season and the area under 
Rabi crop increased to about 6,800 acres in 1968-69. Regular 
cultivation of paddy in 3.5 lakhs acres with irrigation water was 
secured in 1968-69. The yield of paddy went up from 15-18 
maunds to about 30 maunds per acre in the irrigated areas and 
consequently the district average increased to 18 to 25 maunds 
per acre. 1 Incidentally, it may be mentioned here that besides 
irrigated water, a continuous increase in the use of high yielding 
seeds, fertilisers and plant protection materials as part of new 
practices in intensive agricultural work was also responsible for 
this change in cropping pattern and higher yield. In order to 
derive full benefits under the Project it has been considered 
necessary to arrange facilities for utilization of irrigation poten¬ 
tial by the lift irrigation devices either from the rivers, Kandar 
or from Mor canals. Non-availability of irrigation facilities from 
the Mor Project to the lands in higher situations is another 
problem which is yet to be solved satisfactorily. 

It has already been indicated that paddy is the most important 
crop of the district and almost the whole of it is grown in the 
Kharif season. Growing of paddy in the Rabi season is still 
in an initial stage and its popularity depends solely on the avail¬ 
ability of irrigation water. The importance of other crops does 
not seem to be very significant if the acreage for the individual 
crop is taken into consideration. The number of crops other 
than paddy is also very limited for the Kharif season. Generally, 




1 Source : Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


s 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 195 

sugarcane, arum and ginger are grown in the Khar if season and 
their total acreage is not very high. In Rabi season, wheat, 
pulses, oil seeds and vegetables of different varieties are grown 
on a limited scale. 

In the first ,year of the programme, the area covered for paddy 
was 500 acres while for 1967-68 and 1968-69 the area covered 
were 30,000 acres and 1,20,000 acres respectively. The area 
covered for wheat during the first year was 25,000 acres while 
the same for the second and third year, i.e., 1967-68 and 1968- 
69 was 34,000 acres and 70,000 acres respectively. 1 

The various irrigation projects in the district may be classified Sources of 
into (i) river lift irrigation, (ii) river valley project, (iii) deep lrn 8 atlon 
tubewells, (iv) minor irrigation, (v) small irrigation, (vi) shallow 
irrigation schemes and (vii) tank irrigation. 

The following statement shows the total irrigated area for 
the years 1967-68 and 1968-69 during Rabi and Khar if seasons. 

SOURCES OF IRRITATION AND TOTAL AREA IRRIGATED IN BIRBHUM 

district: 1967-69 


Sources of irrigation Total area irrigated Total area irrigated 

• in 1967-68 (in acres) in 1968-69 (in acres) 



Rabi 

Khar if 

Rabi 

Kharif 

River Lift Irrigation 

810.69 

585.00 

800 

900 

River Valley Project 

45,325 

3,61,000 

50,000 

3,65,000 

Deep Tubewells 

54.04 

54.66 

138.60 

114.40 

Minor Irrigation Schemes 

200 

400 

200 

500 

Small Irrigation Schemes 

217 

780 

412 

1,500 

Shallow Tubewells* 

970 

650 

930 

1,120 

Tanks & Other local 





reserve wates by use 





of pumping plants 

1,485 

2,370 

2,337 

2,370 


The West Bengal Tank Improvement Act was implemented Tank irrigation 
during the various Plan periods to derive the following benefits: 

(i) increase in the annual production of paddy, (ii) reclamation 
of cultivable waste lands, (iii) increase in the yield of winter 
crops, (iv) pisciculture and (v) production of vegetables. Accord- 


1 Source : Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 






4 


BIRBHUM 

ing to the Settlement Report of 1931, there existed more than 
10,000 tanks in the district of which almost 90 per cent were 
derelict. After independence, these tanks were taken up for 
development during the various Plan periods. t The number of 
tanks improved or developed during the First, Second and Third 
Plans with year-wise break-up for each Plan period, showing the 
cost of improvement and benefited area is given below: 1 


k 

196 


FIRST PLAN PERIOD 


Year 

No. of tanks 
improved 

Cost involved 
(in rupees) 

Benefited area 
(in acres) 

1951 

77 

1,09,023.50 

3,080.70 

1952 

24 

52,144.00 

2,078.68 

1953 

52 

1,70,079.31 

2,043.48 

1954 

55 

1,50,000.00 

1,678.54 

1955 

12 

59,557.00 

276.62 

Total 

220 

5,40,803.81 

9,158.02 - 



SECOND 

PLAN PERIOD 



No. of tanks 

Cost involved 

Benefited area 

Year 

improved 

(in rupees) 

(in acres) 

1956 

33 

71,321.81 

881.14 

1957 

39 

67,416.00 

958.94 

1958 

14 

56,863.35 

403.33 

1959 

23 

51,320.11 

636.73 

1960 

9 

31,100.00 

362.00 

Total 

118 

2,78,021.27 

3,242.14 


1 Source: Tank Improvement Officer, Birbhum. 

% 


k 


k 


k 




AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


197 


THIRD PLAN PERIOD 


Year 

No. of tanks 
improved 

Cost involved 
(in rupees) 

Benefited area 
(in acres) 

1961 

10 

25,000.00 

232.75 

1962 

30 

50,000.00 

813.74 

1963 

25 

49,627.00 

756.50 

1964 

23 

63,000.00 

522.06 

1965 

21 

80,000.00 

531.51 

Total 

109 

2,67,627.00 

2,856.56 


The object of improvement of the tanks was mainly to provide 
irrigation water in areas where there were no other sources of 
irrigation. In 1966-67, 11 tanks were improved in the Block 
areas, while in later years it was decided by the Government 
that henceforth tanks should be improved by the Panchayats 
concerned. 


On the whole, the surface of the district is undulating and Agriculture & 

Horticulture 

irregular, the trend of such undulations is from north-east to 
south-east. ‘The soil of the district is mostly covered with laterite Soil and 
nodules. Granite veins can also be seen to traverse the district, cro P s 
at places running up on the surface for hundreds of acres in 
bleak barren plateaus still unyielded to human efforts to cover 
it under tillage.’ 1 The soil of the south eastern part of the 
district is alluvial with dark clay or clay and sand, while the soil 
of the western* portion is mostly laterite as has already been 
stated. 

The various types of soils as observed in the district and their 
suitability for growing different crops are described below. 

Entel, which literally means sticky, a brownish clay, is a very 
poor soil. It becomes very sticky when wet, and gets hard and 
cracks in long fissures on drying. It can grow rice if manured, 
but is not suitable for Rabi cultivation. Metel is a clay soil 
which can retain moisture and is best suited for aman rice, sugar- 


1 District Census Handbook: Birbhum, 1961. p. 9. 


198 


BIRBHUM 


# 




1 


% 


Major and 
subsidiary 
crops 


Mode of 
cultivation of 
aus and aman 
Paddy 


c 

C 


C 


*" cane, wheat, gram and kalai. Bagha-entel is a heavy reddish 
soil which becomes very sticky when wet and extremely hard 
when dry. It can retain moisture for a longer period than any 
other soil. Like entel it is also a poor soil and capable of pro¬ 
ducing paddy only if manured. Palimati is alluvia] deposition. 
It is a very rich soil and is well suited for sugarcane, wheat, 
gram, potato, cabbage and other vegetables. With assured irri¬ 
gation water it can produce Rabi crops in abundance. Bindi is 
a sandy soil which improves with continued cultivation. It is 
reddish, loose and friable with very little water-holding capacity. 
It is capable of producing paddy and can produce Rabi crops 
with irrigation. Doansh is a mixture of clay and sand, forming 
a blackish, loose and friable soil. It is not so rich in fertility 
but can grow rice and also suitable for almost all sorts of crops. 
It is not ordinarily suited for Rabi cultivation. Kankar is a 
reddish, loose and friable laterite soil containing ferroginous 
concretions in it. It is a poor type of soil, capable of growing 
bajra, maize, peas, etc. It will also grow Rabi crops with irri¬ 
gation. Bele is a whitish, loose and friable soil, not retentive 
of moisture. It is a poor soil suited only for paddy and 
vegetables. Bastu, a rich blackish soil with low water holding 
capacity, can grow fine rice, wheat, sugarcane, peas, tobacco, etc. 
with proper manuring and irrigation. 

Paddy is the most important crop of the district accounting 
for about 80 per cent of the total cultivated area. Birbhum is 
mainly an aman paddy producing area and while one-tenth of 
the cropped area gives other food grains, jute and other cash 
crops are not generally cultivated on a wider scale ifi this dis¬ 
trict. The cultivation of paddy being the most important, an 
account of the process followed is given below. 

The aman or winter rice is the most important crop and the 
bulk of the cultivable land of the district is reserved for the 
cultivation of this crop. This variety is richer and requires 
greater attention from the cultivators. The 'numerous bunds 
which are found in the fields exhibit the urgent need to hold 
water for this crop. The ploughing of the land starts ‘with the 
first shower at the end of winter. As aman paddy is chiefly 
grown by transplantation, the preparation of the seedlings is an 
important factor in the cultivation of this crop. Generally, a 
rectangular piece of land is ploughed up repeatedly in the 
months of March and April (Chaitra and Baisakh of the Bengali 
Calendar) <_and every little root of wild growth is turned upside 

c C. 


c 


c 


t 


C 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


199 


down and exposed to the heat of the sun. Sometimes, the 
collected roots and shrubs are burnt and the ashes go back to 
the land. The land is then pressed with a ladder so that it settles 
down hard, else^ a loose soil permits the roots to go deep and 
make it difficult for the cultivators to take out when seedlings 
are needed to* be transplanted. The selected seeds are then sown 
and arrangements are made for good supply of water. Generally, 
the seedling ought to grow to a height of nine inches to a foot 
before they are transplanted. An acre of seed beds needs 
between thirty seers to a maund of seeds, while the seedlings 
grown on an acre can be transplanted to about thirty acres 
of area. 

The transplantation generally starts by the end of June and 
continues to the middle of July—a period when the cultivators 
are expected to put in the hardest labour. Completion of trans¬ 
plantation before the end of ashar is considered to be the best. 
The full monsoon which usually follows this period yields the 
best results to the transplanted paddy. In case of late rains, the 
cultivators are put to various devices for supply of water. If 
the rains be seasonal, the seedlings grow in number after trans¬ 
plantation. Normally, by the end of September-October, the paddy 
is m flower and within a fortnight to three weeks, the harvesting 
starts. 

The aus paddy is easier to grow and normally provides a 
second chance for another crop. There are two varieties of 
this rice, the local names being chotna and baran. Aus is often 
grown after Rabi is harvested, but it grows better after the land 
is left fallow to recuperate for four months. After the first 
shower of rain, the land is ploughed up during February and 
March and besidas ploughing, some cultivators use the spade 
and the hammer to break up the clods of earth. Deep furrow¬ 
ing is not essential and depth of six to nine inches is considered 
sufficient. Aus is generally sown broadcast but occasionally it 
is also transplanted. While the season for sowing varies with 
the rains, the sowing is normally completed between the middle 
of May and the end of June. Under normal conditions, the 
seedlings come out just above the earth within a period of four 
to six days and the blade shoots forth a day or two later. In 
ten or twelve days, the plants grow to the size of about nine 
inches. The field then requires weeding and care is to be taken 
to keep the land free from weeds. Harvesting is started between 
90 to *120 days from the date the seeds are thrown. The aus 


200 


BIRBHUM 


4 

rice is not liked by the wealthier section of people as it is of a 
inferior quality while the poorer people take to it with reluc¬ 
tance and reject it whenever they have the option. 

The following statement gives the distribution of the crops in 
the district for the year 1960-61. ** 

G 

THE DISTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN BIRBHUM 
DISTRICT: 1960-611 


Area (in acres) 


Total Rice 

7,66,767 

(a) Aman 

6,77,562 

(b) A us 

85,745 

(c) Boro 

3,460 

Wheat 

13,838 

Barley 

1,236 

Jawar 

247 

Bazra 

247 

Maize 

1,483 

Gram 

27,429 

Other food grains 

93,159 

Sugarcane 

17,297 

Rape and mustard 

988 

Til or Sesamum 

247 

Linseed 

5,18? 

Condiments and spices 

741 

Jute 

494 

Fruits and vegetables 
(including root crops) 

26^687 


The cropped area of a district does not remain constant over 
years. It varies according to changes'in weather condition and 
other agro-economic features. The statement below gives an 
idea of the percentage of area under certain important crops to 

the total cropped area of the district for a certain number of 
years. 


1 Source: District Census Hand Book: Birbhum: 1961. p. 93 


4 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


201 


PERCENTAGE OF AREA UNDER CERTAIN IMPORTANT CROPS TO 
TOTAL CROPPED AREA IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1951-61- 1 

(area in ’000 acres) 


Name of crop 

1951-52 

1956-57 

1960-61 

Total Rice" 

93.00 

85.49 

79.89 

(a) Aus • 

8.78 

13.18 

8.93 

(b) A man 

84.19 

72.28 

70.60 

(c) Boro 

— 

0.03 

0.36 

Wheat 

2.10 

2.17 

1.44 

Maize 

0.29 

0.24 

0.15 

Gram 

3.29 

2.45 

2.86 

Other foodgrains 

N.A. 

4.70 

9.71 

Sugarcane 

0.65 

1.17 

1.80 

■ Linseed 

0.19 

0.54 

0.54 

Fruits and Vegetables 

N.A. 

2.20 

2.78 


It has been already stated that with the implementation of the 
Mayurakshi Project, there has been a great change in the pro¬ 
duction of crops in the irrigated area. The statement below 
shows the irrigated area of the district under principal crops 
and percentage thereof for the period from 1951-52 to 1965-66 2 . 

IRIGATED AREA (IN HECTARES) UNDER DIFFERENT CROPS IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT 8c PERCENTAGE THEREOF: 1951-663 




Name 

of crops 


Year 

Rice 

Jute 

Sugarcane 

Potato 

1951-52 

20,000(6%) 

100(50%) 

1,050(50%) 

3,300(100%) 

1952-53 

20,000(6%) 

100(50%) 

1,500(50%) 

3,900(100%) 

1953-54 

20,000(6%) 

100(50%) 

1,500(50%) 

3,450(100%) 

1954-55 

50,000(15%) 

100(50%) 

1,550(50%) 

3,550(100%) 

1955-56 

35,000(23%) 

100(50%) 

1,755(50%) 

3,450(100%) 

1956-57 

86,700(27%) 

100(50%) 

2,580(60%) 

3,180(100%) - 

1957-58 

1,24,720(40%) 

183(75%) 

2,170(75%) 

4,000(100%) 

1958-59 

1,36,840(42%) 

123(100%) 

2,170(75%) 

4,300(100%) 

1959-60 

1,48,000(45%) 

228(80%) 

2,775(75%) 

5,200(100%) 

1960-61 

1,50,01)0(46%) 

164(100%) 

5,250(75%) 

5,630(100%) 

1961-62 

1,56,163(48%) 

265(50%) 

3,075(75%) 

4,800(100%) 

1962-63 

1,60,000(49%) 

245(98%) 

3,225(75%) 

4,400(100%) 

1963-64 

1,62,700(50%) 

230(80%) 

3,375(75%) 

6,0.20(100%) 

1964-65 

1,64,245 

123(100%) 

3,656(80%) 

5,180(100%) 


(50.35%) 




1965-66 

1,65,600 

82(100%) 

3,150(80%) 

6,860(100%) 


(50.72%) 


1 Source: ^District Census Handbook: Birbhum, 1961. p. g$. 

2 Source: Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 

3 Figures inside brackets indicate percentages of total area under the crops. 



» 


V. 


Fruits & 
Vegetables 






202 BIRBHUM 

From the given statement it may be seen that there has been 
a gradual expansion of irrigated area since 1957-58 owing to 
other sources of irrigation, besides project operation. Since 
1965-66, the area under rabi crop has gone up t significantly and 
with the introduction of the High Yielding Variety Programme 
during 1966-67 the agriculture of the district has entered a new 
phase of intensive cultivation. This aspect has been dealt with 
in details under a separate section where the progress of scienti¬ 
fic agriculture has been discussed. 

The varieties of paddy are large. The Settlement Report of 
1924-1932 has indicated 135 varieties of which ramsctl, raghu- 
sal, bankchura are liked by the elites. In recent years, how¬ 
ever, the principal varieties found in the district are ramsal, 
kalma, dudkalma, patnai, raghusal, bhasamanik, sindurmukh 
and kalamkati of which about 45 per cent come under bhasa¬ 
manik, and 40 percent under kalamkati. 

Fruits grown in the district do not deserve any special men¬ 
tion. The mangoes have no reputation; the jack fruits, the 
blackberries are found, but have little distinction. The only 
important fruit tree that attracts attention is the palmyra palm— 
its fruits, raw and ripe, are much in use and occasionally its juice 
is boiled to sugar crystals or is made into candy. 

It has already been stated that rice is the main food crop of the 
district and occupies about 80 per cent of the net cropped area. 
The following table would give an idea of the volume of pro¬ 
duction of the principal crop in relation to other important food 
and non-food crops of the district between 1961-62 and 1965-66. 

NET CROPPED AREA UNDER PRINCIPAL CROPS IN - 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1961-66.1 


(in thousand hectares ) 
Total c 


Year 

Total 

Rice 

Wheat 

oil 

seeds 

Total 

pulses 

Sugar¬ 

cane 

Potato 

1961-62 

310.82 

7.06 

3.36 

45.41 

' 4.10 

4.80 

1962-63 

313.70 

7.70 

3.11 

42.45 

4.45 

4.40 

1963-64 

305.47 

10.70 

3.67 

44.50 

4,57 

5.18 

1964-65 

317.40 

N.A. 

3.30 

45.70 

4.57 

5.18 

1965-66 

309.03 

N.A. 

3.10 

45.78 

3.92 

N.A. 


1 Source Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


W. 


V 




AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


203 


* 


Sugarcane is an important cash crop of the district. In t e U S c 
past, disposal of sugarcane was a problem in this district and 
80 per cent of the crop was used for preparation of gur. In 
recent years, with the establishment of one sugar mill at 
Ahmadpur, the-scope for proper utilization of the sugarcane has 
greatly increased. During the year 1960-61, 7,86,000 maunds of 
sugarcane were crushed, out of which 90,947 maunds of sugar¬ 
cane were procured from Bihar. Owing to certain difficulties, 

the mill is at present closed. 1 

The table 2 below would indicate the total cropped area, the 
yield per acre and the total production of principal crops of the 
district over the five-year period from 1962-63 to 1966-67. 



Name of 

Cropped (in 
thousand 

Yield per 
acre (in 

Total pro¬ 
duction (in 
thousand 

Year 

Crop 

acres) 

maunds) 

tons) 

1962-63 

A man Rice 

698.1 

14.30 

366.7 


A us Rice 

69.0 

12.43 

31.5 


Potato 

10.8 

78.06 

31.0 

• 

Jute 

0.6 

3.02 (A) 

1.8* 


Sugarcane 

10.6 

417.81 

162.7 


Wheat 

18.9 

5.85 

4.1 

1963-64 

Aman Rice 

661.7 

15.66 

380.7 


A us Rice 

86.0 

12.23 

38.6 


Potato 

12.3 

82.66 

37.4 

/ 

Jute 

0.7 

2.90 

2.0 

Sugarcane # 

11.1 

509.42 

207.7 


Wheat 

26.2 

4.42 

4.3 

1964-65 

Aman Rice 

694.8 

15.65 

399.5 


A us Rice 

81.8 

13.53 

40.7 


Potato 

12.7 

108.13 

50.4 


Jute 

0.3 

3.39 

1.0 


Sugarcane 

11.2 

414.77 

170.7 


Wheat 

18.9 

5.84' 

4.1 


i For details, please see Chapter V on Industries. 

a Source: Agricultural Economist, Socio-Economic & Evaluation Branch, 
Department of Agriculture 8c Community Development, West 
Bengal. 

(A) = Production of Jute is given in ’ooo bales (i bale = 20o lbs). 

(*)=Yield rate of jute is given in bales/acre (i bale = 2oo lbs). 



Progress of 

Scientific 

Agriculture 


BIRBHUM 

Total pro- 


Name of 

Cropped (in 
thousand 

Yield per 
acre (in 

duction (in 
thousand 

Year Crop 

acres ) 

maunds\, 

tons) 

1965-66 A man Rice 

684.0 

15.43 

387.7 

A us Rice 

66.7 

15.61 

38.3 

Potato 

16.8 

98.14 

58.1 

Jute 

0.2 

2.24 

0.4 

Sugarcane 

9.6 

499.67 

176.2 

Wheat 

18.7 

11.09 

7.6 

1966-67 A man Rice 

713.5 

16.38 

429.4 

A us Rice 

76.2 

13.65 

38.2 

Potato 

14.0 

85.54 

44.0 

Jute 

0.2 

1.90 

0.4 

Sugarcane 

7.7 

389.77 

110.3 

Wheat 

29.6 

8.29 

9.0 


The older types of implements are still in general use in the 
district. Ploughs of the indigenous type constitute the main 
animal-drawn agricultural implement, while spades, pick-axes 
and sickles are also used. These simple implements are made 
m the villages by the village blacksmiths and carpenters and are 
also repaired by them when required. In recent years efforts 
were made to acquaint the cultivators with the use Of new types 
of improved agricultural implements which play an important 
part in increasing the production of crops. Provisions were also 
made to distribute improved agricultural implements like paddy- 
weeders, wheel-hoes, seed-drills and mould-board ploughs at a 
subsidy of 50 per cent of the cost. The progress, however, in 
this respect is still limited as the cultivators are very poor and 
often borrow their tools and implements from their neighbours. 
The repair of improved type of implements was also a problem to 
the farmers as they could hardly arrange for the spare parts. This 
difficulty has been overcome through the posting of a mechanic 
at each Block office for attending all repair works on receipt of 
requisitions from the cultivators. The following statement shows 
the distribution of improved implements in the district, for the 
year 1967-68. 





• agriculture and irrigation 
distribution of improved implements in 

BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1967-68 1 


Total Quantity 
distributed 


Distribution 
of improved 
implements 


Type of implement distributed 

w 

Mould-board plough 53 

Paddy-weeder ^ 

Wheel-hoe 10 

Seed-drill ^ 

Birbhum was one of the nine districts in West Bengal , . Agricultural 
the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme was launched in Area Programme 
1964-65 with the object of arranging intensive cultivation in 
selected areas. For proper implementation of the scheme, the 
district-level organization of the Agricultural Department was 
strengthened by the appointment of three subject matter specialists 
one for agricultural information and two for agronomy and plant 
protection work, besides the Project Executive Officer (later 
designated as Principal Agricultural Officer) holding charge of 

the district office. . . 

In 1964-65 the Blocks covered by the Intensive Rice Cultivat o 

Area Programme were Suri-I, Suri-II, Mahammad Bazar, Sainthia, 

Bolpur, Ilambazar, Labhpur, Nanur, Dubrajpur, Ra^Purha - , 

Rampurhat-II, Mayureswar-I, Mayureswar-II, Nalhati-I, Nalhati-Ii 
and Murarai-II. The implementation of the programme, however, 
was not very successful due to adverse weather conditions, the 
crop being completely damaged by heavy thunder showers at t e 
optimum time of sowing. 

In 1967-68. the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme was H,gh-jneldmg 
followed by another Programme known as the High-yiel mg Programme 
Varieties Programme and the district was assigned a place of 
importance among the districts in West Bengal. The district of 
Birbhum being’'admirably suited for the cultivation ol paddy due 
to its favourable soil and climate conditions, the new Programme 
was given a fair trial. In respect of the area put to high yielding 
variety, this district came to a close second just after Burdwan 
accounting for almost one-fifth of the total area under the variety 
in West Bengal. The district, falling within the Intensive Agri¬ 
cultural Area Programme, had already built up an organisation 
which could be utilized effectively at this stage. Above all, was 


1 Source: Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


206 


birbhum 


the advantage due to assured irrigation facilities provided by 
the Mayurakshi Project. The target for the " was fixe 
on the basis of the available resources and the area agreed to y 
the district authorities. The area to be covered by the hig 
yielding variety in 1966-67 was 13,860 acres of wh^ch 1 860 acre 
were for Kharif season and the remaining 12,000 acres tor K 
season. The area under the Programme accounted for nearly o 
fifth of the total area of the State for the year 1966-67. 

Padd bring the principal crop of the district, accounting for 
nearly 80 per cent of the total cultivated area, it was only natur 
that emphasis would be laid on increasing the yield of paddy 
high the exotic varieties of seed and other improved practice- 
Some improved varieties, such as, Kahmpong-I, N. C. 678 and 
N C 1281 were already popular among the cultivators and t 
High-yielding variety Programme was actually introduced in 
district from the rabi season of 1965-66 covering an area of 
acres with the sole object of demonstration, so that in the next 
year the farmers would come forward to grow the new vane le 
with confidence and courage. The following table gives an idea 
of the target and achievement of High-yielding van y P 
the district. 1 


Variety 

Taichung 
Native-1 
Taichung-65 
Tainan-3 
Kalimpong-1 
I. R.-8 
N. C. 1281 
N. C. 678 
Total 


target 

Area {in % of 
acres) total 


achievement 
Area (in % °f 

acres) total 


18,400.00 

7,500.00 

1,100.00 

3,400.00 

12,900.00 

1,400.00 

5,300.00 

50,000.00 


36.80 
15.00 

2.20 

6.80 

25.80 
2.80 

10.60 

100.00 


4,258.24 

2.299.36 
690.05 

1,329.94 

2,409.00 

3.724.36 
13,426.37 
28,137.32 


15.13 

8.17 

2.45 

4.73 

8.56 

13.24 

47.72- 

100.00 


The target and achievement of High-yielding variety 
the rabi season of the same year is also given below: 


Percen¬ 
tage of 
Col. 4 to 
Col. 2 

23.14 

30.66 
62.73 
39.12 

18.67 
266.03 
253.33 

56.27 

crop for 


i Sourced Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 



J 






■J 


" AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 207 

Wheat 14,600.00 100.00 15,303.00 100.00 104.82 

Paddy 2,620.00 100.00 1,825.00 100.00 69.68 

It may be pointed out that the newly introduced Formosan 
varieties, such as., Taichung Native 1, Taichung 65, Tainan 3 and 
I. R.-8 could achieve only moderate success accounting for only 
19 per cent to 63 per cent of their targets, while the other varieties 
which were introduced a few years earlier had exceeded the targets 
by a considerable margin. This achievement of the early varieties 
could be attributed to their popularity among the cultivators which 
again was largely due to the high yield of the varieties and their 
early introduction in this area. 1 

The Principal Agricultural Officer of the district is in charge Seed 
of,the seed procurement through the Block Offices and mainly Procurement 
through the Village Level Workers. The two sources of seed 
procurement are the Government agricultural farms and the culti¬ 
vators participating in the scheme. The total quantity of seed 
procured during the year 1966-67 for the district as a whole is 
shown in the table below. 


SEED procurement from different sources according 

TO VARIETIES IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1966-67 



Government farms 

Cultivators 



Quantity 

Per¬ 

Quantity 

Per¬ 

Quantity 


(in 

cen¬ 

(in 

cen¬ 

(in 

Kind of seed 

Quintals ) 

tage 

Quintals ) 

tage 

Quintals) 

Total 

Taichung Native 

1,506.75 

52.75 

1,349.83 

47.25 

2,856.58 

Taichung—65 

771.10 

69.65 

335.93 

30.35 

1,107.03 

Tainan—3 

140.61 

42.72 

188.52 

57.28 

329.13 

Kalimpong—T 

342.35 

65.95 

176.79 

34.05 

519.14 

N. C. 1281 

207.25 

23.61 

670.50 

76.39 

877.75 

N. C. 678 

174.05 

26.99 

470.85 

73.01 

644.90 

Formosan 

14.26 

100.00 

— 

— 

14.26 

Kalimpong—2 

1.50 

100.00 

— 

— 

1.50 

Others 

479.83 

78.17 

134.00 

21.83 

613.83 


Total 


3,637.70 52.23 


3,326.42 47.77 6,964.12 



1 Source: A Study of High yielding varieties Programme in the District 
of Birbhum, West Bengal with reference to Kharif Paddy, 
* • 1967-68, Agro-Economic Research Centre, Visva-Bharati, 

Santiniketan, March, 1968. 


208 


BIRBHUM 


Distribution 
of seed 


Use of 
fertiliser 


The main responsibility of Seed distribution lies with the Princi¬ 
pal Agricultural Officer of the district and he sends the required 
quantity of seeds to the Block Development Officers for storage 
and subsequent distribution to the participant farmers. The 
improved seeds are treated with proper chemicals before these are 
sold to the cultivators through the Village Level Workers. The 
cultivators being very poor can hardly purchase the seed on cash 
payment and this is why in most cases the seed is sold to them 
by the Village Level Workers on credit, the responsibility for 
collecting the money after the harvest lying solely on the Village 
Level Workers. It may be added that despite the risk involved 
in the procedure the system is still working quite efficiently The 
following statement gives an idea of the supply and distribution 
ot seeds in the district for the years 1967-68 and 1968-69. 1 ' 

Kind of Seed Classification Total quantity distributed 


Paddy 

High yielding variety 

315-3-29 KG 


Improved variety 

Nil 

Wheat 

High yielding variety 

405-2-49 KG 


Improved variety 

Nil 

Total Oilseeds 

145.25 Qntls. 


28.27 


1967-68 1968-69 

559-7-27 KG 
50 KG 
149-1-46 KG 
13-6-60 KG 
43.50 Qntls. 
2125 KG 

in^968 a OT a /h e fi nder Paddy and Whea ‘ increased to * large extent 

In 19fi7fi8 ,t, 7 °, Wm8 t0 USe ° f h ' 8h yieldin « varie ‘y s «d. 

1967-68, the total area under paddy was 50,000 acres and this 

acreage was increased to 1,20,000 acres in 1968-69. The area for 

Teres t i ri i 96 1 8 S0 69 nCr H eaSed fr ° m 34,0 °° 3CreS in ^ 67 - 68 * 0 72,000 

to district ' a “ nS a ShafP riSC in Wheat Portion of 

As the new varieties of seeds respond well to heavy fertiliza- 
on it is essential that the fertilizer should be made available to 

d L £ “ at H nght m ° ffient and in right doses without a "y 

difficulty In order to ensure this, loan is sanctioned for nur- 
c asing fertilizer on usual terms and conditions. The fertilizer 


Source: Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 




AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


209 


*• j 


is stored in the village by the Village Level Workers from where 
the cultivators receive their required quantities in adequate doses 
and in proper time. It may be added that the consumption o' 
fertilizers is on tire increase from year to year since the beginning 
of the High-yielding variety programme. The distribution of 
manure and fertilizer in the district for all the crops from 1964-68 

is shown in the following table. 

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS DISTRIBUTION IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1964-68 (In Metric Tons) 1 



Green 


Ammo- 






Manure 

Town 

nium 


Paddy 


Pot at a Di.Am. 


( Dhai- 

Com¬ 

Sulp¬ 


Mix¬ 

Phos¬ 

Mix¬ 

Phos¬ 

Year 

ncha) 

post 

hate 

Urea 

ture 

phate 

ture 

phate 

1964-65 

127 

1,308 

4,950 

298 

6,000 

165 

4,000 

— 

1965-66 

140 

1,500 

10,000 

350 

1,000 

500 

7,750 

— 

1966-67 

— 

1,330 

5,179 

1,110 

7,872 

420 

4,743 

— 

1967-68 

— 

1,200 

7,052 

2,052 

— 

1,193 

— 

12,200 


In 1967-68, besides the new fertilizer Di-Ammonium Phosphate 
shown in the table above, another new fertilizer, namely. Potash 
has also made its first appearance, the consumption of the latter 
in tlys year being 85 Metric tons. While these two new fertili¬ 
zers have given a fair trial in 1967-68, the use of paddy and potato 
mixtures has been discontinued. In any case, during the period 
under reference there was no dearth of fertilizers in the district 
and the supply was all alone quite satisfactory. 

Normally, a cultivator gets an advance credit of Rs. 150.00 per Role of 
acre of non-irrigated land and Rs. 200.00 per acre of irrigated ( o °P ciamc - s 
land from trie societies. The credit from Co-operative societies 
has got this advantage that there is no limit to such loans pro¬ 
vided the borrower becomes a member of the society and pur¬ 
chases the requisite shares. For the high yielding variety paddy, 
however, the credit amount has been raised to Rs. 290.00 per 
acre of which Rs. 140.00 must be taken in fertilizer and the 
rest in cash. The existing societies are mostly of recent origin 
and are affiliated with the District Central Co-operative Bank 
which advances loans to the societies to the extent of 15 times 
of their share capital. The societies usually advance short term 
loans on existing terms and conditions and mid term loans are 


1 


Source^ Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


210 


BIRBHUM 


granted only in very exceptional cases. Short term loans are 
sanctioned mainly to meet the cultivation expenses and in such 
cases, 80 per cent of the loan is paid in cash while the rest 20 
per cent in fertilizer to be collected from the thana marketing 
societies. The following statement shows the number of service 
co-operatives of the district (with Blockwise break up) handling 
agricultural requisites for the year 1967-68. 

SERVICE CO-OPERATIVES OF BIRBHUM DISTRICT (WITH BLOCK- 
WISE BREAK UP) HANDLING AGRICULTURAL REQUISITES: 1967-68 



Number of 

Quantity of 


Service Co¬ 

agril. requi¬ 

Name of Dev. Block 

operatives 

sites handled 



Rs. 

Suri I 

19 

2,32,363 

Suri 11 

24 

81,462 

Dubrajpur 

39 

5,708 

Rajnagar 

12 

14,828 

Khayrasol 

9 

— 

Ilambazar 

20 

9,146 

Bolpur-Sriniketan 

28 

60,935 

Sainthia 

37 

64,329 

Nanur 

23 

33,197 

Labhpur 

27 

— 

Mayureswar I 

18 

34,000 

Mayureswar II 

11 

59,810 

y 

Murarai I 

21 

69,540 

Murarai II 

32 

0 25,148 

Nalhati I 

30 

— 

Nalhati II 

27 

— 

Rampurhat I 

29 

- 40,000 

Rampurhat II 

18 

41,200 

Mahammad Bazar 

41 

45,686 


Both short term and mid term loans were received by the work¬ 
ing co-operatives of the district from the Central Co-operative 
Bank in recent years. The extent of loan received by the Co¬ 
operatives between 1964-65 and 1967-68 is shown in the following 
statement. 1 


1 Source: District Auditor, Co-operative Societies, Birbhum, 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


211 


Type of loan 


{In rupees ) 

1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 


Short term 
Mid term 


33,60,381 

2,39,059 


24,61,083 

1,16,575 


64,69,193 

2,87,556 


60,45,583 

4.42,118 


In 1967-68, there were as many as 909 service societies in the 
district with a total membership of 55,025 persons covering 22 
per cent of the agricultural population. During the same period 
14 Large Size Marketing Societies were also functioning in the 
district, the largest of these being the Murarai Thana Large-scale 
Agricultural Marketing Society Ltd. located at Murarai village 
handling agricultural commodities worth about 8,67,523 rupees. 

The second and the third societies in this respect were the Suri 
Thana Co-operative Agricultural Marketing Society located in 
Purandarpur village and Nalhati Thana Co-operative Marketing 
Society located in Nalhati village, handling commodities worth 
Rs. 7,18,356 and Rs. 6,50,072 respectively. 

The Agricultural diseases and pests affecting the crops are the Agricultural 
same as found in other parts of this State. Grass hopper. Stem |^ s s ^ ses and 
borer. Rice bug and Rice Hipsa are the insect pests which destroy 
paddy, while Jute Semi-looper, Indigo caterpillar. Jute mite, etc. 
cause harm to jute. Sugarcane is affected by the pests known 
as Sugarcane top shoot borer. Sugarcane stem borer and Root 
borer. Vegetables are usually attacked by a number of insects 
of which Stem borer. Leaf folder. Cut worm. Lady bird beetles. 

Mole cricket. Cabbage moth and Diamond black moth may be 
mentioned. In the case of paddy, jute and sugarcane, the diseases 
are leaf spot, stem rot and red rot respectively. The growers 
in the villages are not yet very keen about the use of insecticides 
and pesticides though they are gradually becoming conscious of 
these scientific jemedies. Of the pesticides sold during 1967-68, 
mention may be made of D.D.T. 50%, B.H.C. 50%, Blitox B.H.C. 

20 E.C., Endrin 20 E.C. and Agresen G.N. which are becoming 
gradually popular. The Demonstration Centres scattered over 
different Development Blocks offer the cultivators good scope 
for knowing the uses of these insecticides and pesticides. 


The Activities of the Agriculture Department may be briefly Activities ,o F 
stated here. There is one State Agricultural Farm located at i! ,E Agriculture 
Sun which is perhaps one of the oldest farms in the State having 



212 


BIRBHUM 


its origin in the prepartition days. This is primarily a research 
farm where agronomical trials and experiments, namely, on rice 
crop, are conducted. The District Seed Farm at Nalhati with an 
area of 99 acres is one of the big farms started during the post- 
Tndependence period. The farm was started in' 1955-56 under 
the programme of multiplication of improved seeds. At present, 
this farm is chiefly engaged in the multiplication and production 
of improved seed, mainly of paddy and wheat. Tn addition, the 
cultivators on the improved method of raising crops. The 
farm also serves the object of demonstration to the neighbouring 
Japanese Model Farm located at Ahmadpur with an area of 25 
acres is one of the ten farms set up in recent years in the model 
of Japanese farm. Starting in 1966-67, the present activities of 
this farm consist in the multiplication of improved seeds like 
paddy and wheat. The main object of this farm is to undertake 
and intensify cultivation of crops all round the year with the 
application of improved technique for achieving maximum yield 
of various crops. High-yielding varieties of paddy and wheat 
are chiefly grown in this farm. Tt also serves the purpose of 
demonstration of improved methods of cultivation which is indis¬ 
pensable for obtaining the maximum yield. 

The Sisal Plantation Farm at Rajnagar with an area of 1,050 
acres was started in the year 1955-56. The object of starting the 
farm is two-fold. Firstly, the farm aims at a fruitful utilization 
of the vast tract of mostly barren lands in the district by growing 
Sisal and other improved commercial crops. Secondly, the farm 
is engaged in the production of Sisal fibre 'and therefrom Sisal 
ropes with the purpose of promoting rope industries in the 
neighbourhood. 

* 

Up to the end of the Third Plan period there was no Warehouse 
in the district. At a later stage, however, one Warehouse was 
established at Ahmadpur with a sub-centre at Rampurhat with 
a total storage capacity of 7,500 quintals under the' control of 
the State Warehousing Corporation, West Bengal. At present, 
there is another Warehouse at Sainthia under the control of the 
Central Warehouse Corporation. In 1968, the number of cold 
storage operating in the district was 4 and the particulars of 
these storages are given below; 


" AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


213 


PARTICULARS OF COLD STORAGES, OPERATING IN 


BIRBHUM 

DISTRICT : 1968 


Name of Cold Storage 

Location 

Capacity 

3 


(in tons) 

Vijay Cold Storage 

Sainthia 

12,400 

Sharda Ice Manufacturing & 

Refrigeration Corporation 

Sainthia 

1,875 

Bokaria Ice & Cold Storage 

Sainthia 

1,865 

Maskaria & Dasrapuria 

Cold Storage 

Nalhati 

850 


Under the supervision of the Agricultural Department, a total sinking of 
of 472 shallow tubewells were sunk in the district during the tubewdls 
period from 1965-66 to 1968-69 as shown in the statement below 1 : 

DISTRIBUTION OF SHALLOW TUBEWELLS IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1966-69 


Year Number of tubewells sunk 

1965- 66 7 

1966- 67 135 

1967- 68 97 

1968- 69 233 


Total 472 


Pumps were also distributed during the same period by the Distribution 
local Agricultural Office, the total number of pumps distributed of P um P s 
being 932. Pumps were also distributed by other organizations 
under certain terms and conditions to the (deserving agricul¬ 
turists during the .year 1968-69 as shown in the following 
statement . 2 


PUMPS DISTRIBUTED BY DIFFERENT 
IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 


ORGANIZATIONS 

1968-69 


Name of the organization Number of pumps distributed 

State Bank of India 245 

United Commercial Bank - 53 

Agro-Industries Corporation 94 

Total 


U2 Source: 


Principal Agricultural Officer, Birbhum. 


392 


214 


BIRBHUM 


Distribution 
of plant protec¬ 
tion equipments 

Deep 

tubewells 


State aid 
to Agriculture 


Plant protection materials like Hand Sprayer and Hand Duster 
were also sold to the cultivators in recent years, the number of 
Hand Sprayers sold in 1968-69 being 122. 

In recent years, efforts were made by the w l cal Agriculture 
Department to sink more deep tubewells for providing irriga¬ 
tion water. Upto 1969-70, the number of tubewells drilled was 
26, while the number of energised tubewell was 19. Of these 
tubewells, as many as 10 were in operation, the remaining 9 
being energised but not put into use during the period. The 
Kharif area benefited from these 10 tubewells was 160 acres and 
the area for rabi crop benefited from the same sources was 
460 acres. 1 As regards sinking of shallow tubewells, it may be 
added here that 135 such tubewells were sunk in the district in 
1966-67 and some more schemes were also sanctioned in the 

later years under Small Irrigation Schemes. 

Normally, agricultural loans, cattle purchase loans and fertilizer 
loans are advanced to deserving cultivators by the District Officer 
through the Block Development Officers, besides various other 
loans disbursed by the Agriculture and Community Development 
Department from their budgetary provisions. The following table 
shows the amounts distributed by the Collector of the district 
from 1963-64 to 1967-68 towards agricultural, cattle purchase 
and fertilizer loans. 2 



Agricul¬ 

Cattle 

Fertilizer 


tural 

purchase 

Loan 


Loan 

Loan 


Year 

(in Rs.) 

(in Rs.) 

v(in Rs.) 

1963-64 

6,20,800 

3,30,840 

4,26,360 

1964-65 

3,09,000 

1,94,000 

3,96,900 

1965-66 

4,18,100 

1,45,000 

2,50,500 

1966-67 

3,91,500 

1,70,000 

2,84,360 

1967-68 

6 ,00,000 

2,50,000 

10,47,490 


The farmers also get crop Loans through the-local co-opera¬ 
tive societies. In 1967-68, the total amount distributed through 
the co-operative societies of the district was Rs. 50,71,280.00, 
while the farmers received Rs. 67,09,500.00 on account of various 
crop loans from these societies in 1968-69. 


1 - 2 Source: Collector, Birbhum. 


- AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


215 


There is no land in the district where fodder crops are grown j^^ DRY 
exclusively. The pressure on land owing to increasing agricul- AND 
ture (food and cash crops) leaves little space to be used as grass 11S111IUES 
lands and this brings limitation in providing with adequate food 
supply to the catfle. As there is no land in the district for grow¬ 
ing fodder crops on an extensive scale, crop rotation schemes 
and mixed farming are being encouraged to overcome this 
difficulty. Improved fodder seeds for use both in Khar if and rabi 
seasons are also distributed at subsidized rates among the culti¬ 
vators of the district. During the Second Plan period, 1,608 
maunds of fodder seeds and cuttings were distributed, while 
16,400 quintals of the same were distributed during the Third 
Plan. The district had thirteen Fodder Demonstration plots in 
the' same period. 1 The fodder problem is as acute in Birbhum 
as in most of the other districts of the State. The ordinary 
villager, being a poor man, can hardly buy all his needs of the 
fodder which sells at a high rate. He being mostly interested 
in the cultivation of food and cash crop, cannot be persuaded 
to keep a part of his land earmarked for fodder production. 

In 1961 , the district had a total livestock population of 11 , 13,515 * 

consisting of 6 , 77,095 cattle, 3 , 3,449 buffaloes, 70,276 sheep, improve quality 
3 , 12.301 goats, 16,500 pigs and 3,765 horses. The number of <)f breeds 
livestock outside these categories was 129 . The local breed of 
cows is poor in spite of the attempts made to improve it for the 
cultivators and other village folk give little attention to the 
breeding. With the launching of the Community Development 
Programme, the Development Blocks at Ahmadpur, Mahammad 
Bazar and Nalhati introduced better bulls in concentrated zones 
for the improvement of the local breeds. There is a growing 
difficulty in finding good pasture for the cattle with the rapid 
extension of agriculture and grazing grounds are now scarce in 
the eastern part of the district. The small plots of pampas near 
the villages which yield scanty grass and the chance herbage 
found in uncultivated and uncultivable land bordering the tanks 
or the raised boundaries of the fields as also the stubble left 
in the paddy fields provide all the grazing of the cattle. This 
is usually supplemented by fodder consisting of. rice crop. In 
the west, however, there are still some pasture lands on the up¬ 
lands, but the sal forests where the cattle once used to graze 
have mostly been cut down. 

i. Source: Fodder Development Officer, Directorate of Animal Husbandry, 

* West Bengal. 




BIRBHUM 


Fisheries 


Tank 

Improvement 

work 


w According to the Livestock Census of 1961, there were 4,16,736 
fowls and 2,80,037 ducks in the district. During the various 
Plan periods, poultry development work was taken up in some 
Blocks, especially in the Development Blocks of Ahmadpur, 
Mahammad Bazar and Nalhati to breed improved varieties of 
poultry, ducks and chickens. The improved breeds of cocks and 
chickens were supplied to the villagers at subsidized rates during 
the First, Second and Third Plan periods. During the Second 
Plan period, Rampurhat and Nalhati used to export to the mar¬ 
kets of Calcutta large quantities of live poultry. In recent years, 
arrangements have been made to grant loans upto Rs. 400 to 
villagers through the Block Offices for running poultry. 

The rivers of the district do not offer much scope for fishing as 
they remain dry during the most part of the year. It is only during 
the rainy season that they yield a small quantity of fish. As 
most of the tanks and ponds also dry up during the summer 
they are not very useful for rearing fish. Owing to these natural 
adverse factors, pisciculture has not made any significant progress 
in the district. During the rains, however, the tanks are utilized 
to some extent for rearing fish. 

The types of fish available in the district are: Kuhi Katla 
Mrigel, Boat, Magur, Air, Folui, Chital, Sol, Lata, Koi, etc/ Of 
these, the common varieties available in the market are Ruhi, 
Katla, Mrigel and Sol. Eggs and fry of these fishes are brought 
from the Murshidabad District and Bihar during the monso/n 
and stocked in tanks for culture. Magur, Sol and Koi are found 
in weed-infested tanks and ponds. 

t0 , the Settlement Re P° rt of 1931, there were more 
than 10,000 tanks in the district at that time and afiout 90 per 

cent of these tanks were reported to be derelict. ‘The numerous 
old tanks show that the necessity of these tanks was once 
realised The long established and well known customs of irriga¬ 
tion. still existing, indicate that the purpose was cUarly grasped." 
everal of these tanks were of large size, e.g., the Dantindighi 
one mile from Dubrajpur, the Raipur Sair four miles south of 
bun, and the Lambodarpur Sair a mile north-west of the same 
place. In this connection, O'Malley states, “Smaller tanks are 
very numerous, and it has been estimated that each village has 
at least five on the average. In the village of Sankarpur, for 


Tn fhe M Di“S e of Bhl 5 hum. 0 “, 9 °4.3," °C CTati on S 


t 


J 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION / 

instance, there are 111 tanks occupying 167 acres, and 46 are , 
so close to each other, that mere footpaths on the top of the 
tanks separate one from another.” 1 . Many of these irrigation 
tanks having silted up have become useless ; some of them have 
become so dry tliat they are let out for cultivation. 

In 1966-67,' there were altogether 20 fishermen cooperative Jw 
societies in the district with a membership of 643 persons while 
in 1967-68 the number of such societies increased to 21 having 
673 members. Out of these 21 societies as many as 14 societ.es 
were organized and registered during the period between 1960 
and 1966, the oldest of these societies being registered m 1139. 

During the Third Five Year Plan, a sum of Rs. 3,750.00 was 
advanced to the fishermen cooperatives under various schemes 
for making or purchasing fishing nets as also for rearing o s 
in semi-derelict tanks. 

Before the launching of the First Five Year Plan Programme, Veterinary 
the livestock work was limited to the upgrading of local breeds 
of cattle through stud bulls and the distribution of improved 
stock of poultry. There were five Itinerant Veterinary Assistant 
Surgeons with headquarters at Suri, Dubrajpur, Bolpur, Nalhati 
and Rampurhat while two subdivisional Veterinary Assistant 
Surgeons were also posted within the municipal areas of Sun and 
Rampurhat to tackle the various problems concerning the bovine 
population. While the Itinerant Veterinary Assistant Surgeons 
were completely under the Directorate and the supply of medicines 
and equipments used to be supplied from the Directorate, the 
establishments of the Subdivisional Veterinary Assistant Surgeons 
were under the dual control of the Government and the District 
Board. The duties of the former were mainly limited to the 
control of epidemic diseases of cattle and poultry and such cases 
were attended by the V.A.S. both at headquarters and while on 
tours. The duties of the Subdivisional Assistant Surgeons were 
to treat cases Li the hospital both as out-patient and in-patient. 

The District Veterinary Officer was the inspecting and adminis¬ 
trative officer of the district in respect of technical affairs. 

During the First Plan period, three Block Veterinary hospitals 
were established at Mahammad Bazar, Ahmadpur and Nalhati. 

In the later stage, the veterinary staff included, besides the 
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon, two Veterinary Field Assistants, 


i I S S. O’Malley_Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum, Calcutta. 1910. 

P- 54- 


i 


218 


BIRBHUM 


v one Compounder and one Peon at each Block. Later, one N.E.S. 
Block was also established at Bolpur having one Veterinary 
Assistant Surgeon, Two Veterinary Field Assistants and one Peon. 
During the Second Plan period, ten more Block Veterinary dis¬ 
pensaries were established and another six dispensaries with usual 
staff strength were also put into operation during the Third Plan. 
During the Second Plan period, six Aid Centres were opened 
and the number for the same in the Third Plan was seven. In 
the later stage of the First Plan, the Suri Veterinary Hospital 
was provincialised and upgraded to Class 1 State Veterinary 
Hospital. Subsequently, the Rampurhat Veterinary Hospital was 
also provincialised but still kept as Class II State Veterinary 
Hospital. In 1968, two Artificial Insemination Centres at 
Mahammad Bazar and Mayureswar Development Blocks were 
also opened. 

During the Third Plan period, effective steps were taken for 
laboratory examination of blood, stool and other pathological 
specimens at the State Veterinary Hospital. Steps were also taken 
to protect animals with serum and vaccine supplied from the dis¬ 
trict stock or other sources. In 1969, there was one depot at 
Suri and one sub-depot at Rampurhat for storing biological pro¬ 
ducts. Electric therapy was also applied to some animals suffering 
from arthritis, skin diseases, sprain and other traumatic ailments. 
The following statement gives the number for artificial insemina¬ 
tion for the period between 1963-64 and 1967-68 in Birbhum 
district showing the progress of this work. 1 


Year 

No. of cases of artificial 
insemination e 

1963-64 

2,429 

1964-65 

2,621 

1965-66 

2,704 

1966-67 

2,812 

1967-68 

2,954 * 


Rinderpest, Anthrax, Black Quarter, Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, 
foot and mouth diseases are the common infectious aliments of 
cattle, while Fowl cholera, Ranikhet disease and Fowl Pox are 
the maladies affecting poultry. All out-breaks are attended to 
promptly and the affected animals are medically treated wherever 
possible. The statement below shows the number of cattle 
diseases attended to during the period from 1963-64 to 1967-68. 


1 Source: District Veterinary Officer, Suri. 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 


219 


Haemo- Foot 
rrhagic & 


Year 

Rinder¬ 

pest 

* 

A nth- 

rax 

Black Septi- 
Quarter caernia 

Mouth 

diseases 

1963-64 


20 

39 

26 

10 

1964-65 

— 

25 

17 

26 

37 

1965-66 

4 

17 

17 

14 

23 

1966-67 

85 

18 

17 

22 

28 

1967-68 

87 

35 

25 

24 

28 


The number of mass vaccination against Rinderpest in cattle 
arid Ranikhet disease in poultry for the corresponding period 
is given below:' 

Name of disease 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 

Rinderpest 50,111 86,015 66,458 94,374 94,149 

Ranikhet disease 2,49,608 1,96.154 2,02,943 2,40,776 2,04,380 

« 

In 1963-64, the total number of cattle and birds treated was 
2,429 and the same for 1964-65 was 2,621. In 1965-66, a total 
of 2,704 cattle and birds were treated, while the number for 
1966-67 and 1967-68 was 2,812 and 2,954 respectively. The 
following statement shows the number of cows inseminated 
through artificial insemination and also the number of cases rela¬ 
ting to cassation of scrub bulls as a preventive measure against 


the growth of 

non-descript cattle. 2 


Year 

0 

Number of cows insemi¬ 

Number of castration 


nated through A. I. 

of scrub-bulls 

1963-64 

2,429 

250 

1964-65 

2,621 

296 

1965-66 

2,704 

85 - 

1966-67 

2,812 

364 

1968-69 

2,954 

553 

i-2 Source: District Veterinary Officer, Suri. 



220 


BIRBHUM 


* The district of Birbhum had a total forest area of 53 square 
miles in 1964 of which about 10 square miles were of proper 
stock and quality. The remaining area was rather scrubby, 
having degraded uplands, the trees there being mostly Sal with a 
sparse mixture of other varieties. Reduced in terms of Sal and 
miscellaneous forests, the 53 square miles of forests have about 
45 square miles of Sal forests and the balance 8 square miles of 
miscellaneous forests. The entire tract includes sizable pockets 
of waste land and degraded areas. The 53 square miles of forest 
area constitute only three per cent of the total land available, 
as against the National Forest Policy resolution of having at 
least 20 per cent of forest area in the plains. There is no doubt 
that unrestricted felling of trees in the past has made a vast 
tract of forest land almost a sterile and barren waste. Whenever 
the land was fertile, it was ploughed up and after yielding good 
crop for a certain period there was a fall infertility. The higher 
slopes which had been kept barren for years were found to be 
continually eroding. 

At present, more and more waste lands have been vested to 
the Forest Department, partly by acquisition and partly by trans¬ 
fer for anti-erosion and afforestation measures. According to 
an estimate of the District Magistrate, the total waste land in the 
district in 1958-59 was 29,888 acres. Even if 20,000 acres of 
waste lands are transferred, the productive forest area would 
cover only 4.6% of the land area. 1 This is why other sources of 
availability of land for afforestation should be tapp6d to make 
up the deficit. The canal banks of the net work of canals of' 

it 

the Mayurakshi Project, the Bakreswar Canal System and other 
small irrigation schemes offer the chief source of such land 
while the Hinglo Irrigation Project proposed to ^e undertaken 
would provide for substantial areas for afforestation. The follow¬ 
ing table presents the total area of the State-managed forests 
articificially regenerated and afforestated till 1964. 


1 Source: Centenary Commemoration Volume: West Bengal Forests. 
Calcutta, 1964. p. 159. 


agriculture and irrigation 


221 


AFFORESTATION WORK IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT l 


J955-64 1 2 


Up to 

the 

Year 


1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 


Area 

planted 

426(1,076) 
488(1,564) 
171 (1,735) 
239(1,974) 
55 (2,029) 
266 (2,295) 
92 (2,387) 
115(2,502) 
141 (2,643) 
101 (2,744) 


Sal 

253 (253) 
214 (467) 
68 (535) 
116(651) 
32 (683) 
125(808) 
38(846) 
93(939) 
107(1,046) 
52(1,094) 


(in hectares) 
Eucal- Miscella- 


Teak 

yptus 

neons 



173 (873) 

_ __ 


274(1,097) 

_ 


103 (1,200) 

__. 


123(1,323) 

4(4) 


19(1,342) 

38 (42) 


103 (1,445) 

7(49) 


47(1,492) 

6(55) 


16(1,508) 

9(64) 

11(11) 

14(1,522) 

3 (67) 

12(23) 

34(1,556) 


The table below shows the revenue and expenditure under the 
Third Five Year Plan as earned and incurred by the Forest 
Department in respect of Birbhum district." 


4 


Average 

of 

years 


1961- 62 

1962- 63 

1963- 64 

1964- 65 


Average 
annual sur¬ 
plus or defi- 



Average 

annual 

Average 

cit includ¬ 

Average 

Expenditure 

annual 

ing deve¬ 

annual 


Develop¬ 

surplus or 

lopmental 

revenue 

Normal 

mental 

deficit 

expenditure 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. _ 

O 

55,626 

2,16,251 

1,73,479 

- 1,60,625 

-3,34,104 

75,992 

2,30,639 

2,63,592 

-1,54,647 

-4,18,239 

83,692 

2,19,516 

1,80,567 

- 1,35,824 

-3,16,391 

63,777 

2,47,234 

1,67,004 

- 1,83,457 

-3,50,461 


In order to cope with the fearful march of soil erosion, the 
Forest Department has taken charge of all Private forests in the 
district, at first under the West Bengal Private Forest Act and 
subsequently under the Estates Acquisition Act of 1954. The 


1 .Source: ibid, p. 288, The figures 

2 Source? Century Commemoration 
Calcutta, 1964. p. 3 l8 - 


in brakets show progressive total. 
Volume: West Bengal Forests. 


« 


222 


BIRBHUM 


Flood, 

Famines 

and 

Droughts 


Famine 
of 1770 


Forest Department has now undertaken rehabilitation of degraded 
forests and re-afforestation in barren waste lands, acquired by 
the Department. The forest committee, appointed in 1938 after 
preliminary enquiries, was of the opinion that ‘The Forests which 
the committee saw is in a miserable condition and those which 
they did not see are to be in much the same state’, and also 
remarked that ‘As regards its forests Birbhum may be said to 
be in a complete decadence.’ This is why efforts have 
since been made by the Forest Department to intensify soil and 
water conserving measures in forest areas, and in the waste lands. 
It has also been decided to obtain possession of vested waste 
lands for afforestation as most of these are unfit for agriculture. 
Another important object has been to replace the Sal coppice 
stools by plantations of more valuable timber species like Teak 
and Sissoo. It has also been found that soft woods like 
Eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, Cassia Siamea have a short 
rotation and have great potentiality in this tract. 

Birbhum is not liable, in any marked degree, to famine or 
nood on a scale sufficiently extensive to affect its general pros¬ 
perity chielly because the means of transport are sufficient to 
prevent the danger of isolation in the event of a local failure of 
crops and to avert suffering on a large scale by importation of 
ood from other districts. The old record, however, shows that 
ormerly this district had to suffer frequently from droughts and 
crop failure. 

During the early period of British administration, the district 
was devastated by famine and as a result many hundreds of 
villages were entirely depopulated and even in larged towns there 
were houses from which most of the members had left for other 
places. Mr. Higginson, Supervisor of Birbhum, in his letter of 
to the East India Company, recommended suspension of 
the collection of arrears of revenue from “the remaining poor 
ryots who have so considerably suffered from the late famine 
that by far the greatest part of them are rendered utterly 
incapab e of paying them.’’ In 1771, according to returns sub¬ 
mitted to authority, more than one-third of the cultiva-ble land 
was found deserted, while in 1776 ‘four acres lay waste for every 
SC ~ en ^ mained under cultivation.’ 1 In 1791 again, the crops 
suffered badly from drought and the Collector had to recommend 
a suspension of revenue to the extent of nearly Rs. 60,000 ; and, 

L. S. S. O’Malley Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, ,910. 


J 


AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION 

at the same time, grain golas (granaries of rice) were opened 
near Suri. In 1800, and again in 1803, there was drought owing 
to the failure of rains. “The prices were so high that the Collec¬ 
tor, Mr. R. Th&ckeray, proposed a special enquiry to ascertain 
how much grain the district could properly export and then to 
have the remainder sold at fixed prices.” 1 There was also 
scarcity in 1829 and 1837 and during the years 1865 to 1867 the 
district suffered again, mainly from scanty rainfall. 

The famine of 1874, accompanied by the epidemic of fever Famm 

known as the Burdwan fever, was severely felt in Birbhum. The 
rainfall in the preceding years was very scanty during the plough¬ 
ing season. Excepting some areas in the eastern part of the 
district where rainfall was adequate and irrigation is more genera , 
the rice crop was a short one. Besides unfavourable harvests, 
the Burdwan fever which invaded a wider area was also respon¬ 
sible for the immense suffering of the common people. In 187 , 
the rainfall was normal in quantity but its distribution was 
abnormal. The rainfall in Birbhum in this particular year affords 
a striking example of how sufficient moisture may be neutralized 

by unseasonable distribution. , 

TJie effect of this abnormal weather on the harvests varied with 

the crops and localities in which they were raised. According 
to the report of the Collector of the district in December 1873, 

“in the district as a whole there had been nine-sixteenth of an 
average autumn ( aus ) rice and three-eighth of an average winter 
' rice (aman) harvest.” 2 This serious failure of the rice crops was 
followed by^gn widescale failure of the cold weather crops, such 
as, wheat, mustard, oil-seeds, etc. This deficiency was soon 
reflected in the market. In September 1873, and in the month 
of 1874, rice sold at double the usual rate, the normal price of 
rice being about 27 seers for the rupee. So, there was acute 
distress in several areas and appeals were made by private and 
charitable institutions for public relief. In March 1874, there 
was great want among the labouring classes to whom the failure 
of the crops meant the denial of harvesting employment, by which 
they subsist to a great extent. 

During the summer of that year, the prospect became still 
more gloomy. Pauperism and crime were on the increase, the 
cultivators being reluctantly forced on the relief works for dis- 


i- 2 ibid. p. 59. 


Scarcity 
of 1885 




224 BIRBHUM 

tress. Fateful diseases like cholera and small-pox were ravaging 
the district, while rice was not available in many villages at 
market rates. The distress was utmost in August 1874 ‘when 
there were at one time 38,321 persons in reca-ipt of charitable 
relief and 9,866 on relief works.’ 1 In the month of March of 
that year, only 683 persons were being gratuitously fed, while 
this number rose to 3,600 in the beginning of May. By the end 
of May, the number was 9,801 and this number swelled to 
18,104 by the end of June. In August and September of that 
year, between 30,000 and 40,000 persons were in daily receipt 
of charitable relief. During this period ‘‘in all, 1,725 tons of 
rice were gratuitously distributed, 800 tons advanced on loan 
and 1,004 tons paid as wages.” 2 

At the same time, a sum of Rs. 49,456 was spent on account 
of relief, Rs. 64,809 in wages and Rs. 61,615 as loan to deserving 
families. On an average, the labourers employed on relief works 
daily numbered 3,846 in April, 8,054 in May, 10,352 in June, 
6,655 in July, 7,826 in August, and 5,194 in September. “Relief 
operations ceased in the end of October, with the incoming of the 
rice harvest, for fortunately the rainfall was both seasonable 
and abundant. In November-December the harvest of aman rice 
caused prices, which had steadily kept up to abnormal rates till 
then, to fall rapidly, and they resumed their normal standard at 
the end of December.” 3 

In 1885, there was again scarcity calling for immediate relief 
measures in some areas of the district, which had already 
suffered from an unfavourable distribution of the rainfall of the 
previous year. The local officers were empowered Co tackle any 
sudden emergency through adequate relief measures. In March 
1885, the relief operations were started in the affected areas of 
the district, and the daily average number in receipt of relief 
in the end of June was 14,340, of whom 5,841 were relieved 
by private agencies. A total amount of Rs. 18,530 was spent 
in relief works. While Government also spent an amount of 
Rs. 22,297 on charitable relief, the total expenditure incurred 
by Government on this score being Rs. 40,827 only, besides, 
Rs. 9,561 was raised by public subscription for the purpose. In 
the relief of distress. Government efforts were ably and efficiently 
supplemented by two principal organizations of Calcutta, viz.. 


1 L. S. S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers. Birbhum, Calcutta, 1910. 

2 ibid. p. 60. 

3 loc. cit. 


agriculture and irrigation 


225 


the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, with a temporary headquarters at 
Nalhati, and the Indian Association, with headquarters at Nawada, 

8 miles east of Nalhati. The relief workers of these organizations 
were early in the field and afforded the local officers valuable 
assistance, while also distributing in an effective and economical 
manner the funds which private charity had placed at their dis¬ 
posal. Two other local organization of Rampurhat, the Scidbhab 
Uddipani Sabha and the Hari Sabha also assisted in the work of 
relief distribution. Some local zaminders of the district also 
maintained at much cost kitchens where a large number of poor 
and helpless persons were fed daily. 

During 1913-14, unusually high floods occurred in the district Floods of 
causing serious loss of fife and property, and damage to standing 
crops, seedlings and houses. A number of persons were drowned, 
and the loss of cattle was heavy. The District Officer took im¬ 
mediate steps to help the people by giving shelter, medical help, 
grain and money. The distressed people were also helped by 
local bodies and public spirited gentlemen. Funds were placed 
by Government at the disposal of the District Officer for gratuitous 
relief and for the grant of agricultural loans. Arrangements were 
made for the distribution of food and clothing where necessary. 

Suspension of revenue collection was made in all the flood- 
affected areas. 

During 1927-28, parts of the district suffered from deficient Drought of 
rainfall, resulting in failure of winter crops which caused acute 19 * 7 ' 28 
distress, particularly to the cultivating classes and landless 
labourers. To meet the situation, relief operations were started 
by the District Boards concerned with their own funds supple¬ 
mented by advances from Government. Land improvements .and 
agricultural loans were also distributed according to requirements. 

Besides, various relief committees were organized to help the 
affected people. Government supplemented the resourcs of these 
bodies by allotting money for gratuitous relief. But most of these 
measures were undertaken in 1928-29. 

The monsoon particularly failed in West Bengal, making trans- Natural 
plantation of paddy difficult or impossible and adversely affecting 
the crop in those areas while had already been transplanted. The 
high lands in the district suffered most severely and distress 
gradually became more acute. Test relief /works had to be 
started in the autumn on an extensive scale. The District Boards, 
aided by advances from Government, rose to the occasion and 
the promptitude with which action was taken undoubtedly pre- 


< 


* 226 BIRBHUM 

* vented a great deal of suffering and privation. Considerable 
sums were advanced by Government in the form of agricultural 
loans, gratuitous relief and advances to District Boards for test 
relief operations. In 1934-35 also, because of w deficient rainfall, 
the distress prevailed and deputations of cultivators and labourers 
met the district authorities applying for relief. The arrangements 
for distribution of gratuitous relief were made as soon as the 
attendance at test relief works showed that this was necessary. 
The famine The failure of the winter crop ( aman ) of 1942 combined with 

of 1943 meagre stocks of rice carried forward from 1942 to 1943 lead 

to a serious shortage in the total supply of rice available for con¬ 
sumption in Bengal. The crisis developed rapidly and the mea¬ 
sures taken by the Central and Provincial Governments prevented 
a catastrophe in Greater Calcutta, which was at that time the 
main base in eastern Asia. The disaster, however, broke out in all 
its fury in rural Bengal affecting the population of this district 
also. The stoppage, due to war, of imports from Burma and 
lack of planned movement of supplies available from sources 
outside the province added to the gravity of the situation. Deaths 
occurred as a direct result of the famine as also of the epidemics 
following in its train. The 1943 famine was sufficiently arrested 
during the following year. Since then, there has been no tacute 
food shortage in the district except sporadic instances of local 
scarcities calling for occasional test relief operations or other 
forms of Government assistance. 




V 


c 


CHAPTER V 


INDUSTRIES 


Extraction of iron from its ore was a flourishing industry in 
Birbhum more than a hundred years ago. The annual production 
from about seventy indigenous furnaces was estimated by 
Dr. Oldham as 1,700 tons in 1852. The iron ore of Birbhum 
occurs in beds towards the base of the laterite deposits. The ore 
is not only abundant, but also contains a high percentage of iron 
averaging over 40 per cent, and being occasionally nearly 60 per 
cent. It is not worked now, but formerly extraction of iron 
from it constituted an industry of considerable importance. The 
first application to work the iron mines by an improved system 
was made by an Indian, Indra Narayan Sarma, in 1774. The 
Government agreed to lease out the mines to him on condition 
that he would be required to pay a rent of Rs. 5,000/- per annum 
after the fourth year of occupation. Though the offer was 
accepted, the lease was never taken up. In 1777, Messrs. Motte 
and Farquhar were given ‘the exclusive privilege of manufacturing 
iron in the Honourable company’s possessions in the country west 
of thy meridian of Burdwan and of selling the produce free of 
duty - 1 The place first selected by the Company for the furnaces 
was located in Jharia, but in the following year Mr. Farquhar 
begged for an alteration in the terms, having in the meantime 
discovered that the ores of Birbhum were better suited to his 
purpose than those of Jharia. His prayer was granted and in 
1779, after further correspondence, an advance of Rs. 15,000 was 
made by Government to Mr. Farquhar in order to enable him to 
complete his furnaces. Mr. Farquhar carried on his business 
from that time to 1789, but little is known about the progress of 
work made during this period. Some of the jagirdars and landlords 
claimed that the revenue from the Loha Mahals (as then called) 
would go to them and the records of this period are thus full 
of accounts of disputes and contests with the local people. 
Farquhar retained the lease of the Loha Mahals till 1795, after 
which they lapsed to the Zamindar, who disposed of parts of 
the estate. 2 ‘It is stated that Birbhum hook iron, during the 
period of Farquhar’s labours, was sold in Calcutta at Rs. 5 per 


2 b S - s - O’Malley—Birbhum District Gazetteer, ioio. p 68 
' iruVcf “‘LdbyTa T. H He“? y . ° f ne " ta P"“' «* ihe 


Old Time 
Industries 


Iron ores 
of Birbhum 



228 


BIRBHUM 


maund, Balasore at Rs. 6-8 and English at Rs. 10 or Rs. 11. In 
all probability this iron was produced by the direct indigenous 
process, not by European methods.’ 1 

In Welby Jackson’s short account of the Birbhum iron works, 
published in 1845, it is reported that there were about thirty 
furnaces produced at a cost of Rs. 17/-, each with a capacity 
of producing about 25 maunds of iron at each smelting, which 
lasted for four days and nights. In 1852, Dr. Oldham reported 
on the iron of Birbhum and the Damodar Valley. According to 
Dr. Oldham, native furnaces, on a large scale were in operation at 
town centres, viz., Ballia, Narayanpur, Deocha, Dhanra and 
Ganpur. At Deocha there were thirty furnaces for the reduction 
of ore ; these were worked by Muslims, the refiners being Hindus. 
The estimated average outturn from each furnace in the year 
was 34 tons of iron and the total outturn of raw iron was estimated 
at 2,380 tons annually from all the seventy furnaces. ‘In these 
furnaces the Kachcha iron, unlike that produced in other parts of 
India, formed at the bottom of the furnace in a molten condition, 
and resembled good pig-iron. The refining was really a sort of 
puddling process, which induced a pasty condition admitting of 
the iron being drawn out and hammered until it became thoroughly 
malleable.’ 2 The maunds of Kachcha iron were said to °yield 
seven maunds and ten seers of the pakka on an average from 
which the outturn of refined iron was deduced to be, approxi¬ 
mately 1,700 tons, at a cost of £ 4-4s per ton. According to 
Dr. Oldham’s estimate, an additional expenditure of 50 per cent 
was necessary to prepare this iron in marketable shape as bars, 
etc. thus bringing the final cost at £ 6-6s per ton. Even then it 
could not complete with English iron at the prices then prevailing 
in Calcutta. But being charcoal iron, its softness made it better 
suited for some purposes than English iron. Dr. Oldham finally 
came to the conclusion that because of the comparatively scanty 
supply of ore and the increasing difficulty of procuring charcoal 
fuel, the extension of the operation was not possible. 3 

About the year 1855, Messrs. Mackey & Company of Calcutta 
established the Birbhum Iron Works Company and selected 
Mahammad Bazar as a site for their factories and furnaces. In 
1858, one Mr. Casperz was the manager of the works who stated 
that the ore contained 46.5% iron and that the production was 


1 L. S. S. O’Malley—Birbhum District Gazetteer, 1910. p. 69. 

2 Source: V. Ball—Economic Geology of India, 1881. pp. 262-05. 

3 Source: Birbhum District Gazetteer, 19x0. 



INDUSTRIES 


229 


3 


2 tons of pig iron per day which was reported as equal in quality • 
to No. 1 grey pig from England and also that it could be delivered 
at Calcutta at Rs. 37/- per ton. There were, however, many and 
frequent interruptions to the operation of these works. W. T. 

Blanford, who reported at length on Messrs. Mackey s iron works 
in 1860, concluded that the manufacture was being carried on at 
a loss and if additional capital were employed, iron could be 
produced at Rs. 37^ per ton as against English iron which was 
sold in Calcutta at that time for about Rs. 58 per ton. He also 
concluded that the supply of charcoal being limited, the opera¬ 
tions could be conducted only on a limited scale. In 1872, when 
the landlord to Mackey’s works at Mahammad Bazar died and 
further attempt to re-open them failed, this last furnace was 
closed; and with it the most complete indigenous system of iron 
manufacture ever practised in Bengal stopped working for an 
indefinite period. In 1875, Mr. Hughes of the Geological Survey 
of India reported favourably on the prospect of iron manufacture 
in Birbhum and some time in this year Messrs. Bum and Co. 
of Calcutta commenced operations in the district, but after a 
trial for a few months, they abandoned the attempt as it did not 
appear to be profitable. It may be added that establishment of 
largef blast furnace by Europeans elsewhere, coupled with infliction 
of heavy royalty on local smelters, ruined this indigenous industry. 

The last of the indigenous furnaces at Deocha closed down in 
1872. 

Indigo manufacture was once an important industry of the Indi S° a ^ ^ 
district, the centres of the industry being Ilambazar and Supur, manu 
where there were large factories. It was first introduced into the 
district about 1795 by John Cheap, the company’s Commercial 
Resident, and was carried on by David Erskine, who established 
a factory at Dorana, about six miles west of Surul and subse¬ 
quently at Ilambazar. His firm was known as Erskine & Co. 
which opened several collieries also. In 1872, this gentleman was 
in possession of eight factories in Birbhum and ten beyond the 
district boundary. The firm ceased to exist in 1882, and the 
factory at Supur was closed down in 1887 after working for about 
a century. There is no indigo factory in the district at present. 

Lac manufacture was once an industry confined to the village Manufacture 

' „ _, ,, , _ of Lac and 

of Ilambazar. The following extract from O Malley s Gazetteer j ac toys 

of 1910 gives an idea of the industry as found in those days, .» 

“The stidk lac is brought in from the western jungles by low 

pastes or semi-aboriginal tribes. In this form it consists oj: small 


230 


BIRBHUM 


twigs surrounded by cylinders of translucent orange-yellow gum, 
in which the insects are imbedded; the best lac is said to be 
obtained from twigs of the Kusum tree, and it is also produced 
on the sal, palas and pakur trees. The raw material, when 
brought in, is separated from the twigs and ground into small 
particles, which are placed in large earthen jars and allowed 
to soak in water for about 24 hours. It is then well rubbed by 
hand till the colouring matter has been thoroughly extracted. This 
consists of the dead bodies of the insects (Coccus lacca ) buried in 
the gum. These, when the fluid is allowed to stand in large vats, 
gradually precipitate themselves to the bottom. The water is 
drained off, and the sediment, after being strained, pressed and 
dried, becomes lac-dye, ready for the maket. This is used for 
preparing the cotton, called alta, which is used by Hindu females. 
The gummy exudation of the insect, in the meantime, is carefully 
dried in the sun, placed in long bags, and melted over a strong 
fire. It is then squeezed out, either in thin sheets upon an 
earthen cylinder, when it is known as button lac. Leaf lac is no 
longer made at Ilambazar, and the trade is confined to button 
lac.” 1 

Towards the close of the last century, Messrs. Erskine & Co. 
had a large shellac and lac-dye factory at Ilambazar. This factory 
was subsequently held by Messrs. Farquharson and Campbell & 
Co. which managed the establishment till 1882 when the factory 
was transferred to Indian hands. About 1910, the industry con¬ 
sisted of several small factories at Ilambazar and its neighbourhood. 
The lacquered articles turned out by the artisans at these centres 
were bracelets, ink-pots, rulers, cups, pots and toys, such as 
imitations of fruits, flowers and animals and were said to be of 
good design and workmanship. The industry was being carried 
on by a class of men locally known as Nuris. It is now almost 
extinct as the last of the Nuris from Ilambazar works, who was 
working on the Sriniketan establishment a few years ago and 
could make excellent toys and other ornaments of lac, has also 
retired to his village home owing to old age. It may also be 
added that at one time about 200 families were employed in this 
trade and there was a good demand for lac-a/ta (pigment for ladies’ 
feet) and other lacquered articles. The industry ultimately 
suffered from competition with earthenware toys of Krishnagar. 


1 L. S. S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta 
P- 75 * 


191°. 



4 


• * * INDUSTRIES * 

Other old time industries of the district include silk weaving, °*^ n dus t ries 
cocoon rearing, tussar and cotton weaving and the manufacture of 
brass and bell-metal products. Pottery manufacture, basket and 
mat-making, sho^-making, etc. may also be classified under old 
time industries. 

While some of the old time industries, such as, brass and°J ies 
bell-metal, pottery, silk weaving, etc. are languishing for want 
of raw materials and competition from open market, new industries 
like cycle-repairing, tailoring, general and jobbing, engineering, 
etc. are opening new avenues for employment in the industrial 
sector. With the gradual spread of electricity in the urban and 
rural areas, more and more new industries are coming into 
existence. Among the new entrants are, a few automobile repair¬ 
ing shops, lathe-machine shops or vulcanizing workshops which 
can be noticed particularly in the Bolpur area. Here power-driven 
saw mills have prospered with the extension of building construc¬ 
tion. Another important new industry, which requires the use 
of electricity, is the production of re-inforced cement concrete 
Spun Pipes, for which there is an increasing demand. 


Prior to the enactment of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948, row* 
there was very little development in the district so far as the 
supply of electricity is concerned. Suri, the district town was, 
however, electrified by a private licensee to whom a licence was 
issued by the State Government in April 1939, the actual supply 
being started in February 1949. A few years later, in 1941, the 
municipal ajea of Santiniketan was also electrified by a private 
company. The arrangement for the supply of electricity at 
Santiniketan was .taken over by the Electricity Development 
Directorate on 3 May 1954 for the purpose of speedy develop¬ 
ment of the place. No other place could be taken up for electri¬ 
fication until the State Electricity Board was constituted on 1 May 
1955. Immediately after the formation of the Board, Suri was the 
first town to be taken over by it from the private licensee, whose 
licence was revoked owing to the latter’s failure in maintaining 
supply. The Board started supplying power at Suri with effect 
from 8 June 1965. 

Both at Suri and at Santiniketan there were local diesel genera¬ 
ting sets for the supply of power. With the construction of the 
Canada # Dam and setting up of the Mayurakshi Hydel Power 
Station, power to the extent of 4,000 Kilowatt was allocated for 


232 


BIRBHUM 


distribution in Bihar while the balance amount of power was 
earmarked for distribution in the district of Birbhum. With the 
availability of Mayurakshi power, high voltage sub-transmission 
lines were drawn from Masa'njore to Suri and then from Suri to 
Sainthia in the latter part of 1955. After the formation of the 
Board, high voltage distributing lines were further drawn to 
Dubrajpur, Rampurhat, Nalhati and Santiniketan and thus all the 
towns in the district were electrified by the end of 1956. Power 
facilities were further extended to such developing areas as 
Mahammad Bazar, Ahmadpur and Mallarpur by the end of First 
Plan. During the Third Plan period, places like Hetampur, Domo- 
hani, Karidhya, Labhpur, Kirnahar, etc were electrified. This 
led to the early electrification of other places like Surul, Chatra, 
Margram, Basoa, Vishnupur, Purandarpur, Abanishpur, etc. 

With the extension of high voltage distribution mains of the 
Board, the major industries of the district, such as, rice mills, 
oil mills, cold storages, etc. being interested in using power, be¬ 
came the consumers of the Board. A few collieries in the district 
have also been lately benefited owing to the supply of electricity. 
It may be added here that since the district is irrigated mostly by 
Mayurakshi Canals, there had been so far no encouraging res¬ 
ponse for the agricultural use of electricity. 

Although power is mostly available from the Mayurakshi Project 
for distribution in the district, the same is also brought from 
the Durgapur Projects Limited at Durgapur to meet the require¬ 
ment of the district. 

The following statement gives an idea of total quantities of 
energy consumed in Birbhum district in recent yearns: 

QUANTITY OF ENERGY CONSUMED IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT ! 

1964-67 *> 


Rural 

Electrification 


v 


Energy consumed 
Industrial consumption 
Non-Industrial consumption 


(In Kilowatt Hours) 
1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 


87,70,172 

53,25,165 

34,45,007 


97,19,358 

59,96,509 

37,22,849 


1,11,81,101 

72,35,528 

39,45,573 


Under the First and Second plans, no rapid progress could be 
made in the field of rural electrification as the available funds 
had to be utilised for increasing the generating capacity and to 
lay high voltage transmission and low voltage distribution lines 


U • 


J 


INDUSTRIES 

to towns which were still unelectrified. During the Thir f Plan * 
however, efforts were made to speed up the work, a " y e ® 
of March 1965 as many as 34 villages were electrifiedout oa 
total number of 2,207 inhabited villages in the district. By the 
end of June 1969, twentyone more viUages were etetnfied thus 
bringing the total number of villages electrified to . J 

be stated here that the number of towns electrified inAhedistr. 
was 6 during the same period. A statement showing the towns 
and villages electrified in the district till the end of June 1969 

with the date of electrification as given m> App^dixj iron> coa l, .wnnsraivs a™ 
The mineral products of the distri , , Manufactures of 

limestone, laterite, granite and sandstone. It has already bee THE DlsTRICT 
stated that extraction and manufacture of iron from consh 

tuted at one time an industry of considerable importame. But 
there are no such industries in the district at present. While no 
other heavy industries have ever flourished, some coal was dis¬ 
covered in the first decade of the present century at a place 
called Arang, about 28 miles from Suri on the-anks o the 
river A jay in the western extremity of Dubrajpur PS. A col y 
was opened here in 1901 having a pit about 75 feet deep. T e 
output of this colliery in 1908 was 1,000 tons and the average 
number of daily labourers employed was 5,940. At present, 
however, mining and quarrying in Birbhum, though no very 
important for the entire State, give some employment to the 
workers of this district, and according to the Census of 1961 
about 27 persons per thousand of the total working population 
are found to be absorbed in mining, quarrying, plantation, forestry, 

While the history of coal mining in Bankura, Birbhum and Coal mines 
Purulia Districts is-not available, it may be stated that mining 
in Purulia District was started long ago and the seams lying a 
a shallow depth in the areas on opposite side of Damodar nver 
were worked. Coal mining in the Bankura and the Birbhum 
Districts appear to have been extended at a muc at er a e 
probably owing to the inferior quality of the coal and dl ffl cu * t y in , 
its transport. The particulars of the collieries in the Birbhum 
District are given in the following statement: 


i Source: West Bengal State Electricity Board Souvenir, 10th Anniversary 

> Divbiona/ J Engineer ) (Commercial), West Bengal State Eleetricity Board. 

3 Source 'f Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1^10. 

* Source: District Census Handbook: Birbhum 1961, p. 09. 


234 


BIRBHUM 


COLLIERIES IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT IN 1962! 


Name of the Colliery 

Mouza Police Station 

Sub-division 

Kankartola 

Kankartola Khayrasol 

Suri 

Bhadulia 

99 99 

99 

East Parsundi 

Parsundi 

99 

Gangaramchak 

Gangaramchak „ 

99 

Russa 

Russa 

99 

Bastabpur 

Bastabpur 

99 

Kasta Bengal 

Pursundi 

99 


The year-wise break up of coal production in tonnes is as 
given below: 

YEAR-WISE BREAK UP OF COAL PRODUCTION 


IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 

1958-62 1 2 


Production 

Year 

(in tonnes) 

1958 

91,950 

1959 

98,089 

1960 

108,734 

1961 

105,676 

1962 

116,844 


Large-scale 

industries 


t 


In recent years, however, the total output of coal has decreased 
owing chiefly to the closure of some mines. Jhe total production 
of coal was only 56,642 tonnes in 1965 while for the years 1966 
and 1967 the same was 65,642 tonnes and 56,275 tonnes res 
pectively. c 

Birbhum being essentially an agricultural district, there are 
no such large-scale industries as textile mills or jute mills. It 
has already been stated that extraction of iron from its ore was 
once carried out on a large-scale, but at present there is no 
such industry. The only industry which was organized on an 
extensive scale in recent years was the National Sugar Mills of 


1 Source: Mining Adviser, Directorate of Mines 8c Minerals, Commerce 8c 

Industries Department, West Bengal. t/ 

2 Source: Hunday & Banerjee—Geology 8c Mineral Resources of West 
Bengai (Vol. 97), Geological Survey of India, Delhi, 1967. p. 111, 






INDUSTRIES 


235 



% 

Ahmadpur under Sainthia P.S. which was set up in 1955. It 
functioned from the 1960-61 season to the 1963-64 season. It 
stopped production in March 1964. It is reported that chiefly 
because of the failure to ensure an adequate supply of irrigation 
water for sugkrcane cultivation and bad communications in the 
area, not more than 48 per cent of the installed capacity of the 
plant could be utilized and working became uneconomic. 

A new cotton mill known as the Mayurakshi Cotton Mills Ltd. Cotton mills 
located at Panchra was registered in 1968. The number of 
persons employed during the year was 500 on an average. 

The industries of the district do not play any significant role 
in. the economic life of the people and only 7.53 per cent of the 
total workers of this district are engaged in any industrial pursuits, 
house-hold or otherwise. In the small-scale sector, a good number 
of workers, both male and female, are employed in the local 
rice mills. There were altogether 68 rice mills in the district in 
1968 employing 2,879 persons of which the majority was female. 

The number of persons employed in the same year varied from 
131 in Sarda Rice & Oil Mills located near Ahmadpur in Sainthia 
P.S. to 10 in Hetampur Ranjan Rice Mill located near Rajbati, 

Hetampur. 1 Rice mills being the major industries of the district, 
employ more women labour than men. According to the 1961 
Census figures, both in the state and the district of Birbhum, every 
twentieth female worker was employed in manufacturing in¬ 
dustries. Sainthia, Suri, Dubrajpur and Bolpur police stations are 
noted for trading activities in particular owing to the presence of 
rice mills, the manufacturing employment being maximum in - 
these areas. 2 j 

The local rice mills which offer employment to a good number 
of working population at different periods of the year are run 
with the help of both electricity and steam and at places partly 
by electricity and partly by steam. The following statement which 
contains the list of only a small number of rice mills of the district 
gives an idea of the annual production, average daily wage per 
worker and total number of workers as employed by these mills 
in 1967-68 


1 Source^? Deputy Chief Inspector of Factories, West Bengal. 

2 Source: District Census Handbook: Birbhum, 1961. 


j 


• 

• 

t 

• 

5 * 

• 

• 

• 

» 

236 

BIRBHUM 

• • 

• 

€ 


A verage 

Average 

Name of rice 


number 

wage per 

mill with 

Annual 

of daily 

worker (in 

location 

production 

workers 

rupees) 

B. B. Dutta Rice Mill 

9,820 quintals 

78 

Rs. 2.00 

(Sainthia) 

R. P. G. P. Chandra 

8,708 M/Tons 

39 

Rs 2.00 

Rice Mill (Sainthia) 
Swarup Chand Sirkar 

28,000 quintals 

35 

Rs. 2.75 

Chand Rice Mills (Sainthia) 
Saubhog Chand & Kapur 

45,000 „ 

45 

Rs. 2.75 

Chand Oil & Rice Mill 
Sarada Rice Mill 

60,000 „ 

100 

Rs 2.25 

(Ahmadpur) 

Orient Rice Mill 

54,000 „ 

70 

Rs. 2.25 

(Ahmadpur) 

Ahmadpur Rice Mill 

20,000 „ 

80 

Rs. 2.50 

of Kuchighata 

Sree Krishna Rice 

18,000 „ 

50 

Rs. 2.00 

Mills, Ahmadpur 

Chandra Rice Mill 

30,000 „ 

64 

Rs. 2.25 

(Ahmadpur) 

Nabin Rice Mill 

12,330 „ 

89 

Rs. 2.06 

(Sainthia) 

B.L.D.P. Rice Mills 

8,000 „ 

23 

Rs. 2.00 

(Murarai) 

Trinayani Rice Mills 

12,000 „ 

40 ^ 

Rs. 2.00 

(Murarai) 

Chatra Rice Mills 

6,000 „ 

c 40 

Rs. 2.25 


(Village Chatra) 

(o 

On the eve of the First Plan, the district had about 70 rice mills, 
most of them being established in the days immediately preceding 
the First World War. A close study 1 of the rice milling industry 
of Birbhum which for a long time past has been accepted as a 
surplus district shows that while a large number of rice mills 
suffers like mills in other parts of this state from acute under¬ 
utilisation of the milling capacity, the wage-earners in these mills 



1 Productivity and Profitability of Rice Milling Industry in Birbhum — 
Chittapnya Mukhcrjee (Khadigrammodyog: December, 1966). 

C ' . 


O 


INDUSTRIES 


237 


are no better-off than the agricultural labourers, and the con¬ 
sumers have also failed to realise a fair deal in the form of lower 
prices and better quality products. On the other hand, during 
the last few decades, profitability of the mills has so increased that 
it is leading to,the same type of concentration of economic power 
which is now a common feature in the larger sphere of our 
economy. 

In the pre-Independence days and as early as in 1938 it was Paddy husking 
suggested by the Land Revenue Commission that “in order to industries 
develop paddy husking in rural areas the best course would be 
to follow a policy of decentralization, and to introduce into the 
villages a simple type of husking machine which can be worked 
by.hand. The cost of husking rice by this machine is not greater 
than the cost of husking in the mills.” 1 The suggestion to use 
machines which can be worked by hand can only lead to the 
conclusion that the Commission did not like the idea of introducing 
power-driven machines apprehending that those might further 
displace labour quite unnecessarily and without commensurate 
advantage to society. By 1963, the district had 350 new and 
imported power-driven husking machines. Some five or six of 
these machines are normally regarded as equivalent to one rice mill 
with an average daily milling capacity of 300 to 400 maunds of 
rice. This means that after Independence, seventy or eighty new 
rice mills in addition to the already existing equal number of 
rice mills were to be found in the district, the husking machines 
being driven either by diesel or electricity. It may be added here 
that there has been a definite shrinkage in the secondary and 
tertiary occupations so far as the occupational pattern of the 
working population is concerned, and employment amongst 
females — with whdm handpounding of rice was a subsidiary 
source of income — has gone down, both in terms of per¬ 
centage and absolute number during the decade 1951-61. 

The study made by Hashim Amir Ali in the early thirties, 2 where utilization of 
analysis of the working of a representative mill in Bolpur town millin S 
during 1930-31 has been made, indicates that the average purchase t apdcUy 
of paddy per year was around 66,000 to 70;000 maunds. In 
another study jointly made by Santipriya Bose and P. C. 


1 The Land Revenue Commission Report, Vol. I, Government of Bengal, 
Calcutta, 1938 , p. 115 . 

2 Hashim* Amir Ali — The Rice Industry in Lower Birbhum, Visva- 
Bharati Rural Studies, 1931 . 


238 


BIRBHUM 


Mahalanabis, 1 an idea of the extent of utilization of the milling 
capacity is also available, the statement below being furnished 
from the same source. 


QUANTITY OF RICE HULLED IN RICE MILLS 'OF BOLPUR • 
SEPTEMBER 1933 TO AUGUST 1934 


No. of 

Months 

Number of 

Paddy hulled 

Percentage 

mills 

worked 

hullers 

{thousand 

Mounds) 

of huller 
utilization 

4 

3 

16 

285 

50 

3 

7 

11 

230 

58.3 

4 

8 

13 

286 

66.7 

1 

9 

3 

90 

75 

1 

10 

3 

54 

83.3 

4 

12 

17 

345 

100 

17 

— 

63 

1,290 

71.2 


The statement indicates that the utilization of the milling 
capacity was much below the optimum. From recent statistics 
available from the Food and Supply Department of the State 
Government for the years 1960-63, it is also found that the rice 
mills of Bolpur town even now do not have a much higher rate 
of utilization of milling capacity as will be evident from the 
statement below: 2 

WORKING OF RICE MILLS OF BOLPUR : 1960-63 
Paddy purchase ('000 rnds.) 


Year 

Working 

mills 

Local 

flow 

Import from 
other 
States 

Total 

Rice 
milled 
(’000 mds) 

1960 

16.8 

1,154 

116 

1,270 

808 

1961 

16.5 

1,459 

186 

1,645 

1,079 

1962 

16.3 

1,298 

167 

1,465 

954 

1963 

16.6 

1,272 

18 

1,290 

859 

A verage 
(1 Yr.) 


\ 

1,296 

122 

1,418 

925 

Average 
(per mill) 


78.5 


85.8 



1 Santipriya Bose and P. C. Mahalanabis — Marketing of Rice at Bolpur, 
Visva-Bharati Rural Studies, 1936. 

2 Source: Food and Supplies Department, Government of West Bengal. 


V, 




INDUSTRIES 


239 


Excluding the supply of paddy from outside the State, which * 
mainly comes from Orissa and fluctuates from year to year 
depending on restrictions on inter-state movement of paddy, the 
mills of Bolpur ,are seen to have maintained almost the same 
quantity of purchase of local paddy as in the thirties. This is 
mainly due to a large increase of population in the rural areas 
as against production in the hinterland of the town which dimi¬ 
nished the availability of paddy for purchase and also partly due 
to diversion of paddy both to the husking machines in rural areas. 

Originally, in 1960 Khairakuri Ceramic Industries Private Ltd. Khai rakuri 
started at Patel Nagar in Mahammad Bazar P.S. with the object industries 
of manufacturing firebricks and potteries. The original name of Private Ltd - 
the factory was Patelnagar Firebricks and Potteries Works which 
was later changed to its present name in October 1965. It pro¬ 
duces low-tension electrical insulators. The raw materials, viz., 

China clay and felspar are taken from Rajmahal, Barakar, Kasim- 
bazar, etc. Quartz is taken from Patel Nagar Minerals and Indus¬ 
tries Private Ltd. The products have a good market in Calcutta. 

The number of daily worker engaged in this industry was 70 • 
in 1960. 

The area comprising Mahammad Bazar Block is very rich in Patelnagar 
minerals, which has attracted attention of new enter-preneurs lately j£duSes & 
towards industrial development on a new line. The industry was Private Ltd. 
started in December 1955 at Patelnagar with a fund of one lakh 
of rupees which included Government loan, private loan and share 
capital. While raw materials are procured from mines at Mouza 
Khoria withiy 300 yards of the factory, the finished products are 
carried by motor trucks to Suri, Sainthia and Mollarpur, and from 
there by rail in wagons to different places outside the district. The 
factory produces China Clay, raw China Clay being washed in the 
washery plant t£ eliminate silica. The number of workers em¬ 
ployed by the industry was 500 in 1960. 

There is no bidi factory in the district where a large number Bidi 
of wage earners can be employed. According to Census of 1961, manufaaurin s 
about 1,361 persons were engaged in this district in the manufac¬ 
ture of bidi as a household industry. Incidentally, this was the 
maximum number of persons engaged in a single industry, 193 
being the number of female workers engaged during this period. 

In recent years, this industry has made a steady progress and the * * 

number ftf units have also increased. Some of these units are 


240 


BIRBHUM 


located at Ilambazar, Mahammad Bazar, Bolpur, Nutan Amda- 
hara, Dubrajpur, Murarai and other places. 

Cottage Industries which are scattered all over the district 
in small and distant villages provide employment to a good num¬ 
ber of people. These include industries connected with car¬ 
pentry, bamboo-and cane-products, pottery, handpounding of rice, 
blacksmithy, weaving of fishing net, cutlery, palm-and date-palm 
leaf-products, manufacturing of gur, mat-making, bidi making, 
manufacture of dairy products, etc., besides, such old-time indus¬ 
tries as silk-and cotton-weaving, rearing of silk cocoons and 
spinning. 

While no recent figures in respect of the number of units 1 
and persons employed in each of these industries are available, 
an idea of the same may be obtained from the statement below 
prepared on the basis of a survey conducted by the statistical cell 
of the Directorate of Industries, West Bengal in 1960-62. 


PERSONS EMPLOYED IN VARIOUS RURAL INDUSTRIES 
IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1960-62 


Name of industry 

Number of units 

Number of persons 


surveyed 

employed 

Hand pounding of rice 

550 

1073 

Gur making 

175 

460 

Bidi making 

764 

2434 

Spinning 

92 

96 

Weaving 

2012 

4030 

Rearing of silk cocoons 

696 

1719 

Silk weaving 

355 

1147 

Mat making 

136 

187 

Knitting of fishing net 

915 

791 

Carpentry 

1696 

2528 

Pottery 

Brass, Copper & Bell- 

966 

1820 

metal products 

166 

470 

Cutlery 

189 

315 

Blacksmithy 

640 

1127 

Bamboo-and cane-products 

1321 

2120 

Chank industry 

181 

226 

1 For the purpose of the survey conducted in 1060-62 a ‘Unit’ means an 

unuertaKing where any type 
servicing or processing work 

of manufacturing, 
was done. 

repairing, assembling. 


I 


INDUSTRIES 


241 


The manufacture of silk, though covering a limited area of , 
the district on its eastern border, was once regarded as the prin¬ 
cipal industry of Birbhum. The silk spinning and weaving at 
and around Gaq,utia, a village situated on the north bank of 
the river Mor, 11 miles east of Sainthia railway station in 
Mayureswar P.S., was once an important industry. A large fac¬ 
tory of the Bengal Silk Company was started here by Mr. Frushard 
in 1786. After his death, it was taken over by the East India 
Company and worked by Commercial Residents till 1835, when 
the manufacture of silk by the East India Company came to an 
end. It was thereafter taken over by the Collector, and was 
run as a khas mahal till the estate was purchased by the Bengal 
Silk Company of Calcutta which carried the manufacture of 
silk in the original buildings. The factory of Frushard, renovated 
several times, form the most imposing mercantile edifice in 
Birbhum even to this day. The principal villages where mul¬ 
berry silk weaving is carried on are Baswa, Vishnupur and 
Margram in Rampurhat P.S. The silk weaving industry is of 
less magnitude and importance than the silk spinning industry, 
but the Baswa-Vishnupur silks have more than a local repute. 

An account of cocoon-rearing can be found in O’Malley’s 
Gazetteer of 1910 which gives an idea of this industry as existed 
in those days. The nistari, the chhota-palu of deshi and the 
bara-palu were the three common varieties of mulberry silk¬ 
worms. “The bara-palu produces a select class of beautiful 
cocoons, yielding a yarn which is in much demand among the 
best weavers': what is called dhabi (white) silk is made out of 
thread spun from white bara-palu cocoons. The bara-palu silk 
goes almost entirely to feed the native looms and at present 
there is no demand for it in the European factories. The 
chhota-palu ranks next as regards the quality of the silk it pro¬ 
duced, but the fibre of the nistary silk-worm is finer and softer. 
On the other hand, the nistari cocoons yield a smaller popula¬ 
tion of silk. There are, as a rule, three crops of nistari and 
one of chhota-palu in the year, while the bara-palu which is 
reared in the spring, forms the greater part of the March crop 
band. The Aswin (September) crop of chhota-palu cocoons is 
of considerable importance, seeds being taken from it to other 
districts for the early November crop. The district is in fact a 



242 


BIRBHUM 




recognized seed-rearing centre ( joar ), known as the Rarh joar, 
to which cocoon rearers resort for the purchase of good seed.”' 

In those days two kinds of mulberry were grown, viz., the 
bara tunt and the chhota tunt. They could be distinguished by 
their leaves and by the kind of soil on which they were grown. 
“The chhota tunt has palmate leaves and grows on sandy soils. 
The bara tunt has lanceolated leaves, which are also thicker 
and slightly rougher than those of the chhota tunt, and it grows 
on stony soil. There is this further distinction that the bara tunt 
is more suitable for the bara-palu, and the chhota tunt for the 
chhota pain silkworm ; while the nistari is reared indifferently 
on both.” 2 The mulberry most commonly found in those days 
was the chhota tunt. This was usually planted in raised fields, 
banked and ditched all round and had to be heavily manured 
with cowshed refuse, mud from the bottom of tanks and the 
remains of reeled-off cocoons. Fresh alluvium is most suitable 
for its cultivation as this kind of land does not require manuring 
for two or three years. The cocoons were either taken to the 
nearest hat for sale or killed by exposure in thin layers to the 
sun and reserved for sale till the arrival of the paikars (agents 
of the European filatures). Sometimes these were also steamed 
in a basket covered over with cloth, under which a pot of water 
was kept boiling and reeled off into silk. In this district the 
cocoon-rearers themselves generally used to spin the silk into 
thread by the native method of reeling. The silk thus obtained 
is commonly known as Khamru, and about 1910 the total pro¬ 
duction was about 500 maunds annually. Raw silk of a better 
quality was spun in filatures of which the most important cen¬ 
tre was that at Ganutia. There was another at Bhadrapur in 
the north, three miles south of Nawda station (commonly known 
as Lohapur) on the branch railway from Nalhati to Azimganj. 
“These filatures all use steam for damping the cocoons, heating 
the water in which they float during reeling, and djying the silk.” 1 
In addition to these filatures, there were numerous spindles in 
the houses of the villagers, particularly in Baswa and Bishnupur 
under Rampurhat P.S., and Paisa in the police station of Murarai. 
The fabrics produced were usually plain price-goods, the com¬ 
mon variety made by the weavers when working independently 


1 L.S.S.O’Malley — Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta. 191a,, 
P- 73 - 


INDUSTRIES 


243 


being kora which was a kind of inferior silk, thin and r ° u S>'' ' 

nnftlossv and soft like ordinary silk, but stiff and hard like 
cotton stuff But while working on commission for the European 
Cs wtth a supRly Of well spun silk, these weavers were qu^ 
capable of turning out quality fabrics. The hst of produ 

included dhotis and saris with printed and P lam , ^“chiefs 
nieces (thans) 10 yards and 7 yards long, and handkerchiefs. 
These were mostly sold locally and sometimes exported also 

to other parts of the province through agents. 

In the P early thirties, the weaving of mulberry silk engaged 
about 400 families in the Rampurhat Subdivision, each ami. 
having on an average two looms. The principal cloths woven was 
chadar, long saris, turbans, and thans for coating and suitings^ 
The use of dye-stuffs were not known to these weavers in thos 
days and the finished fabrics were decidedly inferior to those 
made at Murshidabad. The silk yarn from which the_ fabrics ^were 
made could be chiefly obtained from the district of Malda and 
occasionally from the neighbouring villages of_ Gaffail, Soyprn and 
Dangapara and other places where the mulberry silkworm was 
reared and the spinning of waste silk was carried on. T 
villagers living in the tract from Ganutia to Tilpara ’ n Bo >P“ r 
on both sides of the Mor river were engaged in > rearing th ® 
worm and making yarn, some of which they used to sell. Cloths 
woven by the rest of the local weavers, were sold in Murshidabad 
and Calcutta. Normally, in a day of 10 working hours, a weaver 
with the help of 3 assistants (women and children generally) 
could weave 8 to 10 cubits of silk cloth, earning Re. 1 to Rs. 1-8 
as wages. The average income of a weaver, or more corre y 
of a weaver’s* family was Rs. 30 to Rs. 50 per month in those 
days. These weavers were very hardworking and there was no 
holiday for them. In this connexion, the following paragrap 
gives an idea of the weaving trade of those days, “The mahajan, 
who lives near i central place where this industry is carried on, 
is generally well off. He supplies the weavers with raw material 
and collects the finished products, allowing the worker bam or 
wage on each piece of work. The finished goods are sent to 
Calcutta, Delhi, Lahore and other places where the mahajan has 
connection with firms dealing in these goods. There are. however, 
a few weavers who work independently, and dispose of their 
goods at the nearest marts, or to the beparis who visit the localities 
occasionally. The reason of the reported decline of this industry 

•terns to he the want of organization amongst the weavers who in 

% 


244 


BIRBHUM 


consequence of their poverty cannot stock their goods and send 
them to more favourable places for sale as the mahajans do” 1 

In the Labhpur area, silk weaving was located in the villages 
of Bhabkuti, Abadanga, Bholas and Duarki on a small scale. 
A co-operative Society formed at Abadanga to finance this industry 
failed owing to organizational weakness. 

According to official figures of 1950, about 830 acres of land 
were under mulberry cultivation. It was also estimated in the 
same year that the number of silk weaving establishments in 
Birbhum was 600, employing 978 handlooms. It has already 
been stated that the Kora is the usual type of silk turned out 
by the weavers, where the raw silk is not bleached at all. “The 
silk is simply re-reeled and then warped and woven with weft. 
In some cases, the warp is doubled and the weft doubled or 
trebled according to the deniers of the silk used. In other cases, 
single warp is used, but the weft is doubled or trebled as the 
case may be. In this process of Kora weaving, the winding and 
doubling and preparing the warp and other processes are done 
by the washermen, and the dyeing and printing by separate 
organizations of dyer and printers.” 1 According to an estimate 
of 1950, Birbhum had an annual production of 9,14,400 yards 
of silk cloth. Baswa and Vishnupur specialised in Kora thans 
for printed saris and dress-pieces, each of 12 yards length and 
45" width, and turban cloths, 9 yards long and 40" wide. 

According to a survey conducted by the statistical cell of the 
Directorate of Industries, there were 696 units for rearing of 
silk cocoons in 1960-62 providing employment to 1,719 persons. 
The total number of units for reeling of silk for filename period 
was 38, engaging 150 persons in that particular trade, while the - 
total number of silk weaving units was 355 providing employment 
to 1,167 persons. 

The weaving of tussar is carried on in a small scale in the 
villages of the district, the most important of whfth are Birsingh- 
pur, Malipur, Karidhya, Tantipara and Ilambazar. In the early 
thirties, there were about 500 weavers at Tantipara who used 
to weave tussar and occasionally cotton. In the villages of 
Karidhya and Malipur, there were approximately 400 looms 
in those days of which about half the number were employed is 
weaving tussar. In the past, cocoons were usually brought from 


1 Report on the Survey of Cotton Industries in Bengal 
Calcutta, 1929. p. 15. 


(Second Edition), 



9 


INDUSTRIES 245 

the western jungles, where they were reared by the tribals or 
gathered from the forest trees. As the quality of cocoons gathered 
or reared in the district was not sufficient to meet the demand, 
the weavers had to*depend on the supply from the Santal Parganas, 
Singhbhum and.such other places. The cocoons, having passed 
into the weavers’ hands, were reeled and woven into dhotis, saris 
and thans, 10 yards in. length and could be dyed, if required. 

In the early thirties, the tussar weavers were found to be 
comparatively well off than the silk and cotton weavers, the 
average monthly income being a little more than that of the 
latter. The weaver was usually helped in his work by the 
women and children of his family, and they could weave a 
sari,. 9 cubits long, in one day. The raw material was procured 
from the markets of Dumka, Chaibasa, Jamtara and other places. 

The beparis (hawkers) also used to visit the villages carrying 
tussar cocoons with them for sale. The supply was however 
seldom regular. The finished products, which were chiefly saris, 
dhotis, chadors and cloth for making dress were sold in the 
local market, the orthodox Hindu villagers being inclined to 
wear tussar silk during their religious and matrimonial and 
other ceremonies. 

Cotton weaving, an old-time industry of the district, has declined Cotton 
for many years past owing to the import of cheaper machine- weavin £ 
made cloth. Coarse cotton cloth is woven in many villages and 
the product finds a market among the cultivating and labouring 
classes. Finer cloths, such as, twills, table cloths, purdahs, bed 
sheets, and cloth for coats and shirts are made at Bolpur, Suri 
Karidhya, Tafttipara, Panchiara, Murarai, Nalhati, Rampurhat, 
Dubrajpur and Sien. In 1940, the number of weaving families 
of the district was estimated at 3,569 and the number of workers 
at 5,527. The monthly production was estimated at 2,37,180 
yards, and the apnual production at 28,46,160 yards. Birbhum 
was reported to consume approximately 7,11,540 lbs. of yarn in 
a year. The number of fly-shuttle looms was estimated at 
2,108 and the number of throw shuttle looms at 1,541 making 
a total of 3,649. In the middle of 1953, there were 140 weavers’ 
co-operative societies, of which 102 were limited and 2 unlimited 
liability societies, the total membership standing at 3,329, but 
none of these societies was in a flourishing condition. In 1960- 

■-•- 

Source: Census^igtji, District Hand books: Birbhum. Calcutt^, 1954. 



246 


BIRBHUM 


c. 


62, there were 2,012 weaving units in the district providing 
employment to 4,030 persons. 

The following statement shows the progress of handloom 
weaving at the Suri Industrial Centre, Suri for the years 1964- 
67: 


HANDLOOM WEAVING IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT UNDER 
THE CO-OPERATIVE FOLD': 1964 - 67 1 


Year 

Number of 

Quantity 

Value 


looms 

{in meters ) 

(in Rs.) 

1964-65 

879 

25,509 

35,433 

1965-66 

1,091 

31,055 

53,498 

1966-67 

1,258 

39,272 

85,210 


The number of looms outside the co-operative fold and quantity 
of cloths produced for the period under reference is shown 
below: 

HANDLOOM WEAVING IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT 


OUTSIDE 

THE CO-OPERATIVE FOLD: 

1964-67 

Year 

Number of 

Quantity 


looms 

{in meters ) 

1964-65 

5,173 

65,79,000 

1965-66 

5,482 

68,80,988 

1966-67 

5,596 

70,18,212 


While pit looms, frame looms and semi-autonjatic looms are 
usually employed for weaving cloths and other products, no 
powerloom can be seen anywhere in the district. Artisans, 
dependent upon this industry, normally work with pit looms and 
with yarn 40 S to 60 S. Some weavers residing at Sukbazar area 
of Ilambazar Block, according to available reports, are technically 
able to work with Doby and Jacquard machine and can prepare 
even Katki sari which is now being treated as a fashionable 
sari in women’s attire. 

Even today, the economic condition of these weavers are not 
very satisfactory, mainly, owing to the fact that they are still 
living in the grip of private traders, who generally supply yam 
to them. The artisans get only normal wages in exchange for 


1 Source: Handloom Development Officer, Suri (Birbhum). 


INDUSTRIES 


247 


finished price-goods produced through a hard-and day-long labour. • 

These weavers again are not very much acquainted with the 
processing activities of fast colouring of handloom products and 
sometimes it is *also found that they are not able to produce 
quality products of handloom goods, for which they are experi¬ 
encing difficulties to dispose of their products in the market at 
competitive rates. 

The handicrafts of the district consist of the lacquer craft of Handicrafts 
Ilambazar which is now almost extinct and bamboo-and cane- 
products, palm-and date leaf-products, embroidery, shola pith 
products and image making. To these products should be added 
the quality leather goods of Sriniketan which have great demand 
far beyond the borders of the district and in foreign markets as 
well. These items of manufacture include cushion cover, shopping 
bag, ladies’ handbag and mora with leather top, purse and ladies’ 
purse. 

Visva Bharati Shilpa Bhavan which is one of the most successful visva Bharati 
weaving establishments in the State has made numerous experi- Sllpa Bhavan 
ments in weaving with fine yarn and new kind of weaves, specially 
with Assamese and Manipuri types of handlooms. It has also 
made bold experiments in printing and dyeing. The greatest 
success, however, has been in the introduction of new designs, 
patterns and colours. This institution has also a very good 
collection of traditional patterns, designs and borders, and through 
a series of new experiments which are still being made, the 
institution at present holds the monopoly of taste and artistic 
effect. The institution has at present a large market all over 
India and i* foreign countries as well. 

It has already been stated that the village Ilambazar Was Lacquer 
once famous for manufacture of artistic and skillful lacquer works 
works and at one time about 200 families were dependent upon 
this industry foj their livelihood. The main items of production 
were lac-toys, lac-fruits, lac-boxes, etc. Owing to financial limi¬ 
tations and lack of organised efforts to help disposal of the 
goods in outside markets, the artisans depending upon this 
industry were forced to engage themselves in other establishments 
ior alternative jobs. Mention may be made in this connection of 
Sri Gopal Chandra Guin who is still engaged in this industry 
and who was until recently the teacher of Sriniketan Craft 
Industries’ Training Centre under Visva Bharati University. 

Sri Guig, an expert and skilled artisan with his experience of * 
long thirty-five years in this line, still feels that revivaj of this 


c 


V 



\ 

248 


BIRBHUM 


Lokpur 

Bowls 


Conch {hell 
products 






industry is possible with the help of young, interested and trained 
artisans in this craft under proper planning and with adequate 
financial assistance from Government. The implements used in 
the toy-making craft are mostly fabricated by the artisans them¬ 
selves. An earthen pot to contain sal-wood charcoal which is 
used for melting the lacquer, three bamboo sticks tied to each 
other on which the pot is placed, a hollow bamboo pipe to 
blow the fire with, a square wooden plank, a flat-tipped wooden 
spoon, a knife having a blunt blade which the artisans call ‘chair’, 
a pair of tongs and a handle to drop molten lacquer are all the 
tools that are required. Lacquer sticks of various colour are 
turned round and round over the charcoal fire until they get 
the right degree of malleability when pieces are taken off and 
pressed with fingers into desired shapes. The faces, torsos and 
limbs are shaped separately and then joined together to form 
the whole. Slender tapes of coloured lacquer are fixed on them 
to define the pair, eyebrows, moustaches, jewellery and edges of 
apparels, etc. Drops of coloured lacquer are used to form the 
eyeballs, nose and ear-ornaments, buttons and the like. 

Lokpur bowls which are also known as Birbhum bowls top 
the list of indigenous handicrafts of the district. Seven sets of 
these bowls or pais made by the master craftsman Sri Kamala 
Kanta Karmakar of Lokpur won the first prize in the All India 
Handicraft Competition of 1955-56. Wood is curved in the 
shape of pais (previously used for measuring rice, chira, etc.), 
bound and ornamented with brass, which gives them a handsome 
appearance. Present use of Lokpur bowls has been for table 
decoration only. Lakshmipur or Lokpur is a village <in Khoyrasol 
P S., about 6 miles south of Rajnagar. At present, there are 
5 Karmakar families engaged in this trade. These products are 
much in demand for the export market. The average production 
rate is 3 set pais per artisan per month. They are of various 
sizes, from 10 seers down to 1 chatak, and are made in sets. 
One set is sold at a price varying between Rs. 100 and Rs. 120, 
depending upon the quality of ornamental decoration. The 
raw materials required in this craft are wood and - Bell-metal 
scraps and it is not much difficult to procure these materials 
locally. There is another village, Nachan Shalying at a distance 
of 6 miles from Sriniketan, where similar works are also done. 

Coloured conch shell bangles constitute a speciality of Birbhum. 
There is a concentration of conch shell artisans at Karidhya, 
Mahamrnad Bazar, Nalhati and Bolpur. According to the 1961 


i 



/ 


INDUSTRIES 


Census, the number of artisans engaged in the craft at that tun , 
was 120 with an average income ranging from Rs. 40 to Rs. W 
per artisan per month. Good quality chunks are not to be 
found in the distsict and very recently the Industries Departm 
of the State Government have decided to arrange supply of quality 
chunks to individual artisans. 

In the early thirties there were about 100 charmakars ( muchis ) 
in the village of Tantipara and an equal number in the Sun town 
who could make excellent boots and shoes to order. Most oi Manufacture 
the footwear would find a ready local sale, although a portion rfboou and 
of it would go to Calcutta merchants for disposal. The greater 
portion of the leather was imported from Calcutta. The 
charmakars could also tan some of their leather according to 
local methods for the manufacture of slippers, etc., required by 
the cultivators and other working people. According to the 
survey made by the Industries Department of the State Govern¬ 
ment during 1960-62, about 160 persons were employed for 
making shoes, bags, etc. in 110 units, while there were 278 units 
for repairing shoes, etc. employing 312 persons. Besides, 114 
persons were engaged in the work of flaying and tanning in 66 

In this connection, mention may be made of the Training- rra ining-Cum 
cum production-Centre located at Suri which was established in 
1957 for upliftment of the charmakars. This centre does two¬ 
fold functions. While imparting training to the unskilled cobblers 
of the locality on the modern lines regarding manufacture of 
footwear and other leather goods, it also provides employment 
to the ex-tr?.inees of this Centre in the production wing attached 
to it, where they are given good facilities to earn for their 
livelihood. Up to 1960, about 45 students received training and 
the Centre has also helped to reduce unemployment among the 
cobblers of the locality. Most of the ex-trainees were also pro¬ 
vided with work in the established footwear concerns of the 
locality as well as in Government establishments. 

Mat-making is an important cottage industry of the district, Mat-Making 
the trade being confined to the poorer section of people. Some 
local Muslims are also very expert in this work. Mat, which 
is prepared out of nut leaf, has a good market in the district and 
in the neighbouring areas. The monthly income of the person 

1 Source- Total Number of Industrial Units and their Employment in 
* West Bengal, 1960 - 62 : Statistical Cell, Directorate of Indus¬ 
tries, West Bengal, p. 4 . « 


ft 

,/ 

■V 


Bamboo & 
cane products 


Brass and 
bell-metal 


State aid to 
industries 


250 


BIRBHUM 


engaged in this industry was between Rs. 25 and Rs. 30 in 
1960. 

Some poorer sections of people are expert in making bamboo 
goods, such as, baskets, birds’ cages, fans, etc., and in most cases, 
this work is the only source of their livelihood. A man engaged 
in this trade could earn about Rs 15 or Rs. 20 per month in 
1950. There is little local demand for these goods at present. 

Brass and bell-metal wares are made in many villages and 
the most skilled workers of this trade mostly live in Dubrajpur 
and Nalhati. They turn out bell-metal articles of a betteT lnish, 
which find a ready market outside the district. The brass 
utensils and pots of Ilambazar, Tik arbetha and Hazra tpur are 
also deemed to be oflTsupenor quality! In the early Mies 
the products turned out by the Nalhati Karmakar Cooperative’ 
Society were of a superior quality and could hold their own 
with those prepared in Khagra, Murshidabad where the best 
bell-metal workers of West Bengal were to be found. In 1960- 
f ’ ^ here were altogether 1,321 units in the district employing 
persons. The artisans, depending upon this industry, are 
compelled to buy the c ontrolled ^ items of raw materials, such 
as, copper, zinc, tin, etc. from private tradersT'Tecause" often 
they fail to get their quota of raw materials from Government 
This dependence on private traders or village mahajans as they 
are commonly called and the high prices of these metals are 
detenng the growth and development of this industry in rural 
areas. Besides, the cheap alluminium products have occupied 
some place in the market and slowly but very steadily pushing 
out bell-metal products from the market. c 

A sum of Rs. 400 as loan can be sanctioned to an artisan or 
the Block D ^elopment Officer within his jurisdiction. 

e District Industrial Officer also sanctions to small enter- 
preneurs of the district a loan varying from Rs. 400 to Rs. 2,000. 
At the district level, the District Magistrate also'sanctions loans 
up to a sum of Rs. 10,000 for development of various industries 
within the district. The following statement shows the extent of 

1967-68 IStnbUted ^ him dUring thC Peri ° d fr ° m 1963-64 t0 

^ Loans distributed from the office of the District Magistrate 
Birbhum under the Bengal State Aid to Industries’ Loans A* 
during 1963-64 to 1967-68 are shown below. 1 


1 Source b District Industrial Officer, Birbhum. 


INDUSTRIES 


251 



Amount 
of loan 
distri¬ 


No. of • 
units 
bene¬ 

Year 

buted 

. Rs. 

Nature of Industries 

fited 

1963-64 

66,400 

Brick manufacturing. Carpentry. 

18 

1964-65 

29,700 

Blacksmithy, etc. 

7 

1965-66 

20,400 


5 

1966-67 

44,100 

Grinding, Brick manufacturing.. 
Cycle repairing, Blacksmithy, 
installation of pumps, repairing, 
etc. 

12 

1967-68 

16,960 

Brick manufacturing. Shoe 
making. Carpentry, Tile manu¬ 
facturing, Rope industry, etc. 

14 


The West Bengal Khadi and Village Industries Board also West Bengal 
disbursed loans and grants in recent years under various schemes Industries 
relating to village industries. A sum of Rs. 22,566 was paid Board 
as grant and Rs. 11,282 as loan to various co-operative societies 
for development of Khadi weaving. Between 1963-64 and 1965- 
66 a further sum of Rs. 22,566 was sanctioned as grant for the 
same purpose. During the period from 1960-61 to 1965-66, a 
total of Rs. 10,853 was given as grant and Rs. 37,875 as loan 
to different co-operative societies of the district for development 
of hand p^ounding of ric£ industry. 1 For the purpose of helping 
the village oil industry, a sum of Rs. 23,187 was sanctioned as 
loan between 1961-62 and 1965-66. Besides, loans and grants 
were also paid to the various co-operative societies of the district 
for development of cane gur and date-palm products, village 
leather good# and the like. 

In recent years, labour unrest was neither extensive nor fre- Laboui 
quent in the district. Between 1963 and 1968 a total of 6 cases unrest 
was recorded for settlement. The cases originated mainly from 
demands of better wages, bonus and other amenities as also 
from prqtests against dismissal of workers. The statement 
below gives particulars of work stoppages in the registered 
factories of the district from 1963 to 1968 (Calender year). 2 

_ _ * 

1 Souace: Executive Officer, West Bengal Khadi and Village Industries 

Ltd. 

2 Source: Deputy Labour Commissioner (Statistics), West Bengal. 


LABOUR DISPUTES IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 

1963-68 



demand for Puja Bipartite Successful 

bonus & non¬ 
payment of arrear 
wages 


INDUSTRIES 


253 


The registered factories of the district are governed by the welfare 
provisions of the Minimum Wages Act of 1948. There is one ^our^' 
Inspector of Minimum Wages for the areas of Birbhum and 
Purulia districts, ,and the Durgapur and Asansol Subdivisions of 
the Burdvvan District. The Inspector of Minimum Wages tours 
all areas allotted to him for inspection of various industrial units 
governed by the provisions of the Act. He is authorised to 
issue notices to the management where necessary, in case of 
violation of the provisions of the Act and is also competent 
to file prosecution cases and claim cases under Section 20 of 
the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 for recovery of arrear dues 
wherever it is felt necessary. 

An Inspector of Minimum Wages was appointed for the areas 
of Birbhum and Purulia Districts and the Asansol Subdivision 
during the period from 3 September 1965 to 28 September 1967. 

But no case of violation of the provisions of the Act was 
reported during this period. 

There is i no Labour Welfare Centre at present in the district 
of Birbhum. 


While there was no Employers’ Organization in the district up Labour and 
to 1968, there were 40 workers’ unions which were registered organization 
under the Indian Trade Union Act of 1926. The largest union 
was Bolpur Dhankal Mazdoor Union with 695 members. These 


Workers’ Unions were mostly affiliated to the various political 
organizations such as United Trade Union Congress, Bengal 
Provincial Trade Union Congress, etc. A statement showing 
the registered trade unions in the district of Birbhum is given 
at the end Qf this Chapter in Appendix B. 


Industries do not have any significant role in the economic Industrial 


life of the district. With the gradual decline of cottage industries, LTpJTns 
more and more people have taken to cultivation to earn their for Future 


livelihood. The present endeavour of the Government is, there- Development 
fore, to develop'as many as the old-time rural crafts as possible 
side by side with new industries where more and more people 
can be conveniently employed. Manufacturing employment is 
maximum in the areas where rice mills are located. With the 


modernization of the plants, it may be possible to employ more 
workers in the rice mills. Proper arrangement for bank finance 


i s expected to help economically the 2,000 families of weavers 


operating in the district. At present, the weavers are mostly 
wage earners, the weaving industry being owned by some in¬ 
fluential outside organizations. There are graduates and matri- 


254 


B1RBHUM 


culates in the weavers’ families and these educated men can be 
trained up for running co-operative societies with adequate 
financial aid from the Government. The area comprising 
Mahammad Bazar is very rich in minerals. There are two small 
deposits of quartz and felspar near Raspur and Kadirganj in 
this police station. A black stone suitable as road ballast and 
concrete chips is also found in the district. Proper utilization of 
these resources may help the local people to get gainful employ¬ 
ment. 

Appendix A 


T OF ELECTRIFIED TOWNS AND VILLAGES IN BTRBHUM DISTRICT 

(as on 30 june 1969) 

Date of 

Places Electrified 

Police Station 

Electrification 

Towns 

1) Bolpur 

Bolpur 

1.9.41 

2) Dubrajpur 

Dubrajpur 

1.9.56 

3) Nalhati 

Nalhati 

8.10.56 

4) Rampurhat 

Rampurhat 

8.10.56 

5) Sainthia 

Sainthia 

21.10.55 

Villages 

1) Abdarpur 

Suri 

1961 

2) Ahmedpur 

Sainthia 

22.10.55 

3) Andanbari 

Dubrajpur 

1.6.57 

4) Angargaria 

Mahammad Bazar 

3.8.55 

5) Anua 

Sainthia 

25.3.61. 

6) Asatganja 

Dubrajpur 

1.6.57 

7) Baguti 

Rampurhat 

8.10.56 

8) Bakreswar 

Dubrajpur 

19.11.58 

9) Baruipur 

Ilambazar 

12.9.68 

10) Basea 

Rampurhat 

12.4.65 

11) Begali 

99 

1968 

12) Bhagabatipur 

Sainthia 

22.10.55 

13) Bhaluka 

Dubrajpur 

29.1.68 

14) Chatra 

Murarai 

15.3.68 

15) Chunpalasi 

Ilambazar 

11.2.69 . 

16) Dharampur 

99 

13.2.69 

17) Faiyimullabav 

Sainthia 

21.10.55 

18) Gangapur 

Ilambazar 

12.2.69 




1 


4 


INDUSTRIES 255 


Places Electrified 

Police Station 

( contd .) 

Date of 
Electrification 

b 

19) Hetampip* 

Dubrajpur 

1.6.57 

20) Ichapur 

Ilambazar 

12.2.69 

21) Iswarpur 

Sainthia 

22.10.55 

22) Kalipur 

Suri 

31.3.59 

23) Kamalpur 

» 

1956 

24) Kayers 

Ilambazar 

13.2.69 

25) Kendua 

Suri 

1968 

26) Kharia 

Mahammad Bazar 

5.1.67 

27) Khesnator 

Suri 

24.2.69 

28) Khoerbari 

Ilambazar 

11.9.68 

29) Karidhya 

Suri 

24.2.59 

30) Kimahar 

Nanoor 

10.11.60 

31) Komarpukur 

Mahammad Bazar 

1955 

32) Kondala 

Dubrajpur 

1.6.57 

33) Kuchinghata 

Sainthia 

22.10.55 

34) Labhpur 

Labhpur 

9.12.59 

35) Mahugram 

99 

9.12.59 

36) Margram 

Rampurhat 

15.4.64 

37) Mirzapur 

Ilambazar 

11.9.66 

38) Muradhihi 

Sainthia 

1965 

39) Nagdighi 

Nanoor 

1965 

40) Naoga 

Ilambazar 

11.2.69 

41) Nirma 

Nanoor 

Dec. 1963 

42) Nischiatapur 

Rampurhat 

8.10.56 

43) Paschimdurgapur 

Sainthia 

18.11.58 

44) Pandua 

Dubrajpur 

14.9.68 

45) Parota 

Nanoor 

10.11.60 

46) Payet 

Ilambazar 

12 9.68 

47) Purandarpur 

Mahammad Bazar 

19.10.66 

48) Rajyadharpur 

99 

3.8.55 

49) Ramnagar 

Ilambazar 

11 2.69 

50) Sasakuri 

Mahammad Bazar 

1965 

51) Sultanpur 

Suri 

19.10.66 

52) Talpara 

99 

1958 

53) Tikarbata 

Ilambazar 

15.9.68 

54) Uttarkone 

99 

1.2.69 

55) Vishnupur 

Rampurhat 

12.4.65 


% 


ft I 


256 


BIRBHUM 


Appendix B 

STATEMENT SHOWING THE REGISTERED TRADE UNIONS IN THE 
DISTRICT OF BIRBHUM (AS ON OCTOBER 1968) 

Date of t 


SI. Registra 

Name of the 


Member- 

No. tion 

Union 

A ddtress 

Affiliation 

ship 

i. 26.6.56 

Birbhum Rice and Oil 
Mills’ Labour Union 

P.O. Murarai 

UTUC 

353 

2. 14-9-57 

Birbhum District Rice 
Mills’ Association 

P.O. Bolpur B.N.C.C.I. 

(Bengal National 
Chamber of Com 
merce & Industry) 

64 

3. n.12.57 

Birbhum Zilla Dhan O 
Telkal Mazdoor Samity 

P.O. Bolpur 

UTUC 

>25 

4. 12.3.58 

Birbhum Rickshaw 

Workers’ Union 

P.O. Suri 

UTUC 

2 50 

5. 20.6.58 

Bolpur Municipal 

Employees’ Association 

Bolpur 

WBMEF 

144 

6. 14.7,58 

Birbhum Motor 

Workers’ Association 

Suri 

UTUC 

329 

7. 2.1.59 

Nalhati Dokan Karma- 
chari Samity 

P.O. Nalhati 

— 

5 1 

8. 22.4.59 

Birbhum Press 

Workers’ Union N 

Suri 

No party 

50 

9. 6.11.59 

Bolpur Dhankal Maz¬ 
door Union 

P.O. Bolpur 

UTUC 

%5 

10. 11.11.59 

Birbhum Cinema 
Workers’ Union 

Suri, 

UTUC 

228 

11. 27.6.60 

Raigaon Stone Co. 
Labour Union 

Bhadiswar, 

P.O. Murarai 

UTUC 

309 

12. 25.8.60 

Dokan Karmachari 

Samity, Sainthia 

Sainthia 

BPTUC 

>25 

13. 23.9.60 

Bolpur Rickshaw 
Workers’ Association 

Bolpur 

BPT'UC 

233 

14. 5.11.60 

Birbhum Bidi Mazdoor 
Union 

Suri 

UTUC 

300 

15. 23.2.61 

National Sugar Mill 
Workers’ Union 

C/O. K. P. 
Singha Ray, 

P.O. Bolpur 

BPTUC 

221 

16. 17.3.61 

Bidi Mazdoor Union 

C/O Dr. 

Saradish Roy, 
Suri 

BPTUC 

109 

17. 12.4.61 

Suri Municipal Bazar 
Byabasayee Samity 

Suri 

BPTUC 

226 

18. 12.5.61 

Dubrajpur Thana Bibi 
Karigar Union 

Islampur, 

P.O. Dubrajpur 

BPTUC 

150 

19. 2.6.61 

Stone Breakers’ & 
Crushers’ Union 

Bhadiswar; 

P.O. Murarai 

UTUC 

46 

20. 26.9.61 

Sainthia Thana Bidi 
Karigar Union 

C/O. Bijoy Dey, 
Rajnagore 

BPTUC 

20 



INDUSTRIES 


2^7 


Dale of 
Si. Registra¬ 

Name of the 



(Contd.) 

Member¬ 

rs o. lion 

Union 

Address - 

if filiation 

ship 

21. 11.8.62 

A joy Valley Colliery 
Workcts’ Union 

Sonatarpara; 

P.O. Suri 

No. parly 

60 

22. 7.3.0^ 

M u,r a x a i Dokan 

Karniachari Sangha 

Murarai Bazar, 
Murarai 

No party 

5 1 

23. 10.1.64 

Bolpur- Tailors’ Asso¬ 
ciation 

P.O. Bolpur 

No party 

199 

24. 23.7.64 

Suri M u n i c i p a 1 
Workers’ Union 

P.O. Suri 

UTUC 

90 

2 3 - 7- (i 4 

Birbhum Clay Mines 
Fire Bricks 8c Potteries 
Workers’ Union 

Johara Manzil, 
Suri 

UTUC 

5 ° 

26. 1.4.66 

Bolpur Bidi Sramik 
Union 

Bolpur 

No party 

-’39 

27. 20.4.66 

Birbhum Oil 8c Rice 
Mill Mazdoor Union 

P.O. Sainthia 

y y 

i °9 

28. 23.6.66 

Dubrajpur T h a n a 
Rickshaw Union 

P.O. Dubrajpur 

INTUC 

too 

29. 21.3.67 

Suri Dokan Karma- 
char i Samity 

Suri 

No party 

80 

30. 17.4-67 

Rampurhat Sub-Div. 
M 0 t 0 r Transport 

Workers’ Union 

Nichintapui 

Rampurhat 

» y 

42 

3 1 - 6 - 7- 6 7 

Mallarpur Bidi Maz¬ 
door Union 

Mallarpur 

y f ■ 

5 8 

32. 6.9.67 

Mallarpur Dokan 

Karniachari Union 

-do- 

y y 

61 

33. 7.8.67 

Birbhum District 
Tailoring Mazdoor 

Union 

Johora Man/il, 
Suri 

UTUC 

60 

34. 7.8.67 

Sahebganj Loop Rail 
SKunik Union 

Murarai 

UTUC 

48 

35. 19.8.67 

Niramoy T. B. Sana¬ 
torium Employees’ 
Union 

Giridanga, 

P.O. Niramoy 

No party 

- 176 

36. 20.9.67 

Narayanpur Bidi 

Workers’ Union 

Balia Mrityun- 
javpur, 

Narayangangc 

INTUC 

2 39 

37. 20.9.67 

Maleswar Weaving 

Factory Workers’ 
Union 

Mallarpur 

INTUC 

50 

38. 4.1.68 

The Birbhum Dist. 
Central Co-operative 

Bank Ltd. Employees’ 
Union 

Suri 

' UTUC 

54 

39. 26.6.68 

Mayurakshi Cotton 
Mills Workers’ Union 

P.O. Panchra, 
Panchrahat 

No party 

03 

40. 5.7.68# 

Suri Municipal Em¬ 
ployees’ Association 

Municipal 
Office, Suri 

WBMEF 

’I 2 

• 


CHAPTER VI 


Banking 

AND 

Finance 

History of 
indigenous 
banking in 
the district 


BANKING, TRADE AND COMMERCE 

The earliest reference to the existence of a system of banking 
in this region, as traceable in Kavikankan Mukundaram’s 
Chandimangal, a work of circa A.D. 1600. relates to the activi¬ 
ties of a “class of shroff usually called poddars, who exchanged 
cowries (shells) and silver coins, the usual currency of a Bengal 
market.” “They acted as bankers and money-changers, and 
remitted money for others from one town to another and issued 
letters of exchange.” 1 They had cornered the bulk of the specie 
of the land and operated a network of houses in almost every 
part of the country. 2 3 The Bengal District records of the 18th 
century show that revenue was not paid by the zemindars to the 
officers of the East India Company direct, but was collected 
through the agency of these shroffs. As losses due to mis¬ 
appropriation by the middlemen in various ways was inherent 
in the system, it was abolished in 1778. 

“The East India Company as a trading concern had a mono¬ 
poly of the silk industry in Birbhum. Its affairs were managed 
by the Commercial Resident at Surul, about 20 miles from Suri. 
Besides the Commercial Resident, who was a paid servant, there 
was also a Commercial Agent. The latter worked with his 
own capital, and the company paid only for the produce 
received, thereby incurring no risk.”" The heavy drafts made 
by the Resident. Mr. Cheap, on the Treasury at Suri, which at 
times was unable to meet them on demand, shows that the silk 
industry in the district in the early years was on a large scale. 4 
The large silk factory at Ganutia founded by Mr. Frushard 
towards the end of the eighteenth century (after his services as 
Superintendent of the Company’s silk work were terminated, but 
the company permitted him to erect a silk filature on his own 
account), and Erskine & Co.’s indigo and lac factories in the 


G 


1 Muk umla ram —Kavikankan (Jiandi (eel. Srikumar Bandyopadliyaya and 
Biswapati Chowdhury). Vol. i. Calcutta, 1952. pp. 30, 292. Also 

Dwijamadhav— Mangal-Chandir Gael (ed. Subhibhusan Bhattacharyya). 
Calcutta, 1965. p. yii. 

3 Narendra Krishna Sinha-—The Economic History of Bengal (Vol. I). 
Calcutta, 1961. p. 144. 

1 t'- C. Drakc-Brockman—Notes on the Early Administration of the 
District of Birbhum. Calcutta, 1898. p. 26. 
ibid. t 


1 


4 



* 

* BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


259 




vicinity of Ilambazar were conducted under European manage¬ 
ment and by means of European capital. 1 although details of 
the amount of capital employed in the large silk factory at 
Ganutia, etc. are Jacking. The firm of Erskine & Co. had in 
1872 eighteen working factories (indigo) in different districts of 
which eight were located in Birbhum and the total amount of 
floating capital errlployed yearly in working these eight factories 
varied from £3,300 to £4,500, according to the season. 2 Messrs 
Erskine & Co. estimated the total value of the manufacturers in 
Ilambazar and neighbourhood, including indigo, shellac, lac-dye, 
tusar, silk and lacquer work, etc. at about £ 18,500, of which 
imported capital amounted for £ 9,000 and the rest to the native 
capital. 3 This, of course, does not include the native manufac¬ 
tured indigo, the value of which were estimated at from £ 5,000 
to £ 6,000 per annum. 1 

Writing in 1876, Hunter\ reports that in the absence of large 
banking establishments in the district, the cultivators had to 
borrow from village shop-keepers who combined rice-dealing with 
money-lending. 3 As regards the then prevailing rates of interest, 
he mentioned on the authority of the Collector of the district 
that in small transactions where the loans were secured by means 
of ornaments or household utensils, the rate of interest was two 
pice (3 paise) per month for every rupee borrowed or 37*4 P er 
cent per annum. 6 In large transactions, loans secured by a mort¬ 
gage upon houses or lands, the rate varied from 18 to 24 per 
cent per annum.' Loans were not usually advanced against 
security of moveable property. Agricultural advances to the 
cultivators ware made in the shape of grains tor a short period 
of three months or so or till harvest and recovered at the time 
of harvest in grains together with interest at the rate of 25 per 
cent.'* 

It has been aptly said about the Bengali cultivator that he 
“is born in debt, increases his debt throughout his life and dies 
more hopelessly in debt than ever.” 11 ’ According to the Bengal 
Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, the agriculturists of the 


Rural 

indebtedness 


i E. G. Drake-Brockman—op. cit., W. W. Hunter—A Statistical Account 
of Bengal, (Vol. IV). London, 1876. p. 381. 

2.i YV. YV. Hunter—ibid., p. 382. 

5 ibid., p. 381. 

6-3 YV. W. Hunter—ibid., p. 381. 

10 Report*of the Bengal Provincial Banking Enquiry Committee, 1929-30. 
Vol. I. p. 74 - . 


• 0 


I 


4 


0 


260 


BIRBHUM 


C 


t£> 




district obtained their finance from (i) professional money-lenders, 
(ii) non-cultivating proprietors of holdings, (iii) traders, (iv) co¬ 
operative credit societies, (v) landlords and (vi) taccavi loans 
under the Agriculturists' Loans Act. But the debts, according 
to the evidence of the witnesses before the committee, were 
mostly due to the professional money-lenders and a very small 
portion of it to the co-operative banks. 1 Usually, grain-debts 
were incurred for subsistence during the period from the grow¬ 
ing of paddy and its marketing, while cash-debts were for the 
purchase of agricultural implements and manures. The Report 
mentioned only one grain bank at Paikor, but its activities were 
insignificant compared to the needs of the locality. Consequently, 
it could not exert any influence in softening the prevailing high 
rate of interest.- 

According to the same source the percentages of secured and 
unsecured loans were about 75 and 25 respectively. 1 3 Paddy loans 
usually carried interest at the rate of 50 per cent half-yearly 
(that is, for the period from August-September to January- 
February), while unsecured cash debts at the rate of one anna 
per rupee per month which worked out to 75 per cent per annum. 4 
Secured cash debts carried various rates of interest, the minimum 
being 25 per cent per annum. 5 Kabuli money-lenders lent small 
amounts at rates as high as 2 annas per rupee per month or 150 
per cent per annum. 6 7 The usual rates of interest charged by 
the co-operative societies varied from 12- 1 per cent to 15f per 
cent per annum.' But the role played by this source was very 
insignificant. In the opinion of the witnesses, agricultural in¬ 
debtedness was on the increase. 8 . This is borne out by the fact 
that the average debt of members to the co-operative societies 
alone rose from Rs. 50 in 1928-29 to Rs. 150 in 1969-70, while 
membership rose from 20.739 to 67,778 during the same period. 

I he report of the Agro-Economic Research Centre, Visva- 
Bharati on resurvey of the village of Sahajapur under Bolpur 
P.S. of this district makes certain interesting revelations as 

1 ibid., Vol. II, Part I. p. 738 . 

2 ibid -- PP- 572-73. 

3 ib,d -> PP- b 5 6 , 737. 805- 

4 lb,d -> pp. 320 , 572 - 73 , 739 

5 ibid., pp. 572 - 3 . 

« ibid., pp. 324 , 657 . 

7 lbld -> PP- 572-73- o 

b lbld > pp. 658 , 738 , 784 . 

u 




0 


s • 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 261 

regards the extent and incidence of indebtedness, purposes, * 
sources of borrowings and rates of interest thereof. The table 
at Appendix-A of this chapter shows that in respect of the 
extent and incidenfce of indebtedness the village recorded an im¬ 
provement during the period 1956-61.’ 

The analysis of the relevant table by occupation groups shows 
that the cultivators of land wholly/mainly owned and the rent- 
receivers made distinct improvement so far as these two aspects 
are concerned, while the position of others deteriorated. This 
is due to the significant improvement shown by the former 
groups in respect of increase in income, while the latter groups 
have shown a decline. Distribution of old and current cash 
debts by purpose shows that in 1956 consumption credit formed 
47.4 per cent of the total debts, while in 1961 this item accounted 
for 54.6 per cent. Productive credit likewise shows a slight 
increase from 41.3 per cent in 1956 to 45.4 per cent in 1961. 

An indication of the improvement in the level of enterprise of 
the cultivators of land wholly/mainly owned is betrayed by the 
fact that a greater portion of their loans were spent for pro¬ 
ductive purposes. The analysis of debts by source too betrays 
a marked change for the better, as is evident from the table* 
at Appendix-B of this Chapter. The lesser dependence of 
borrowers on private money lenders is borne out by the fact 
that in 1956, 92.4 per cent of the debt was due to them and 
the rest (7.6 per cent) to the Government, while the respective 
figures in 1961 were 54.6 per cent and 31.2 per cent, and the 
rest, that is, *4.2 per cent was to the co-operative credit society 
which started functioning in 1960. Institutional sources thus 
came to play an important role in the system of agricultural 
finance by meeting the credit need of the villagers. Its resultant 
impact is again |elt on the distribution of borrowings and debts 
by rate of interest during the period 1956-61, as is indicated 
by the table below. 


1 Madan Gopal Ghosh—Studies in Rural Change, Sahajapur, West Bengal, 
A Repeat on Resurvey of a village, Agro-Economic Research Centre, 
Visva Bharati, 1966, table 5,6. p. 66, 

8 ibid., table 5.9-10, pp. 69-70, * 



0 


0 


262 


BIRBHUM 


DISTRIBUTION OF BORROWINGS AND DEBTS BY RATE OF 
INTEREST IN SAHAJAPUR VILLAGE DURING 1956-61 ‘ 


1956 1961 

Old debts Current debts Old debts Current debts 


Rate of 
interest 

(cash) 

% to 

(cash) 

% to 

(cash) 

% to 

(cash) 

% to 

per annum 

Rs. 

total 

Rs. 

total 

Rs * 

total 

Rs. 

total 

0 (without 
interest) 

567 

25.6 

1057 

28.5 

500 

26.3 

1187 

29.0 

5.00-12.50 

377 

16.9 

180 

4.9 

280 

14.7 

2440 

59.7 

12.51-18.75 

303 

13.6 

120 

3.2 

160 

8.4 

— 

_ 

18.76-25.00 

269 

12.2 

30 

0.8 

300 

15.8 

270 

6.6 

25.01-37.50 

180 

8.1 

257 

6.9 

360 

18.9 

190 

4.7 

37.51-75.00 

523 

23.6 

220 

5.9 

300 

15.8 

_ 

_ 

Above 75% 

— 

— 

23 

0.6 

_ 

■ 

_ 


Unspecified 

— 

— 

1823 

49.2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total 

2219 

100.0 

3710 

100.0 

1900 

100.0 

4087 

100.0 


Transactions in cash or kind between private credit agencies 
(excluding commercial banks) and agriculturists are now regulated 
by the Bengal Money-lenders Act of 1940. which requires every 
money-lender to obtain a licence valid for 3 years from appro¬ 
priate authorities, maintain a cash-book, ledger, and a receipt 
book and observe other relevant formalities. Under the Act. 
the borrower is not liable to pay any amount in respect of the 
principal and interest of a loan which, together with any amount 
already paid, exceeds twice the principal of the original loan. 
He is also not bound to pay simple interest exceeding 10 per 
cent on unsecured loans and 8 per cent on secured ones. There 
were 37 licensed money-lenders in the district in 1968. 2 

There are several branches of well-known joint-stock banks 
in the municipal and non-municipal towns of the district which 
play an important role in mobilizing the savings of the people. 
The State Bank of India has branches at Suri and Rampurhat 
opened on 4 June 1956 and 30 October 1958 respectively, pay 
offices at Sainthia, Ahmadpur, Bolpur and Santiniketan opened 
respectively on 15 September 1941, 13 October 1969. 3 March 
1952 and 21 December 1968 and sub-offices at Murarai. Mollar- 

1 ibid., table 5.6, p. 112. 

3 Source; District Magistrate, Birbhum. Suri. 


* BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


263 


pur and Dubrajpur opened respectively on 13 April 1970. 14 
April 1970 and 20 April 1970. 1 The United Bank of India has 
branches at Bolpur. Suri. Rampurhat, Ahmadpur and Sainthia 
opened respectively on 27 January 1948. 23 July 1948. 27 Decem¬ 
ber 1968, 24 December 1969 and 30 December 1969.- Its 
deposits during’1968 were Rs. 98.66 lakhs while advances during 
the same year amounted to Rs. 2.61 lakhs.' The United Com¬ 
mercial Bank has branches one each at Dubrajpur and Kirnahar 
opened on 20 September 1968 and 16 June 1969 respectively. 
The Allahabad Bank has one branch at Nalhati opened on 
5 March 1969. 5 

There had been four central co-operative banks in the district, 
namely, Rampurhat Central Co-operative Bank Ltd., Birbhum 
Central Co-operative Bank Ltd. at Suri, Visva-Bharati Central 
Co-operative Bank Ltd. and Nalhati Central Co-operative Bank 
Ltd., of which the first two started functioning on 23 April 1910 
and 2 January 1917 respectively and the last two on 22 Novem¬ 
ber 1927. The Visva-Bharati Central Co-operative Bank merged 
with its counterpart at Suri on 22 August 1958 and the other 
two, namely, the Rampurhat Central Co-operative Bank and the 
Nalhati Central Co-operative Bank amalgamated with the for¬ 
mer on 29 December 1962 and the amalgamated Central Bank 
was re-named as Birbhum District Central Co-operative Bank 
Ltd. The position of the bank during the years 1967-68, 1968-69 
and 1969-70 was as below 6 : 



1967-68 

1968-69 

1969-70 

No. of members 

1,169 1,178 

(in thousands of rupees) 

1.183 

Share capital 
(paid up) 

1,253 

1.292 

1,410 

Reserve fund, 

209 

211 

250 

Deposits 

2,727 

2.616 

2,403 

Working Capital 

10,508 

8.465 

13,513 

Loans issued 

7.878 

5,660 

8,352 

Profit 

90 

143 

301 

1 Source: Joint Chief 

Officer, Reserve 

Bank of India, 

Department 

Banking Operations 

and Development, 

Calcutta. 

United Bank 

2.3 Source: Economist, 

Department of Economic Studies, 


India, Calcutta. 

t.5 Source: Joint Chief Officer, Reserve Bank of India, Department of 
Banking Operations and Development, Calcutta. 

6 Source: Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies, Birbhum, Suri. 





264 


BIRBHUM 




I.ifc Insurance 
and National 
Savings 
Schemes 


State 

assistance to 

industrial 

development 


Trade and 
C Commerce 


The Birbhum Co-operative Land Mortgage Bank Ltd. started 
functioning on and from 5 November 1934. Its position during 
1969-70 was as follows: membership 1.318; share capital (paid 
up) Rs. 1,01,975; statutory reserve Rs. 11.808 4 working capital 
Rs. 16.30,000; loans issued Rs. 5,45,933; loans outstanding 
Rs. 13,75,248; profit Rs. 6,0002 

During 1969-70, agricultural co-operative societies in the dis¬ 
trict numbered 893 with a total membership of 67,778, their 
financial position being as follows: working capital Rs. 
12,50,00,850; deposits Rs. 1,70,116; loans issued Rs. 79,46 6^* 
loans outstanding Rs. 1.02.55.058, profit Rs. 1,33,129- and loss 
1,09,0672 

The Life Insurance Corporation of India has a branch at 
Suri and a development centre at Bolpur, the entire disctrict is 
under the operational jurisdiction of the former. During 1964- 
65 it had a total business of Rs. 112.28 lakhs for 2,873 policies, 
the corresponding figures being Rs. 118.82 lakhs for 3 019 
policies in 1965-66, Rs. 121.97 lakhs for 3,094 policies in 1966- 
67, Rs. 154.77 lakhs for 3.327 policies in 1967-68 and Rs 143 67 
lakhs for 2.953 policies in 1968-69. Besides, these two units also 
transact all types of general insurance businesses. 3 In the field 
of national savings (including Post Office Savings Accounts and 
Cumulative Time Deposits) the gross and net figures of collection 
during 1968-69 were Rs. 2,48,17,000 and Rs. 6,23,000 respectively.' 

The financial assistance rendered by the State Government to 
cottage and small-scale industries of different categories under 
the Bengal State Aid to Industries Act has been discussed in 
Chapter IV. Besides, the Industrial Finance Corporation of 
rndia, created under the Union act bearing the same name- in 
1948, advanced loans amounting to Rs. 35 lakhs to Mayurakshi 
Cotton Mills Ltd. during 1965-662 

The main agricultural produce of the district k rice in which 
it is not only self-sufficient but also exports a considerable 
proportion of its marketable surplus which, according to an in¬ 
vestigation made by the Marketing Branch of the Agriculture 
Directorate in 1960. consists of about 34 per cent' of the total 
production. In the sphere of marketing the traditional system 


;- 2 t° urce: Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies, Birbhum Suri 
* Source: Divisional Manager, L.I.C.I., Calcutta. ’ '• 


Source: Regional Director of National Savings,'West Bengal 
Delhi 61 13 Manager ’ Tndustrial Finance Corporation of 


India, 


New 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


265 


in which direct dealings between the producers and ultimate 
consumers take place at a central place, called market, still 
persists in this district also. The system of barter in which the 
major crop serves as a medium of exchange likewise persists in 
the villages. Paddy loans are repaid in terms of paddy. Side 
by side with these phenomena, gradual development of economic 
activities has brought in its train modern system of marketing 
with its usual complexities and problems. The growers price 
is in most cases determined and dictated by middlemen who 
are financed by and act as agents of wholesalers or millers and 
consequently they look more to the interest of the latter at the 
cost of the growers. The system of open auction is still not in 
vogue. Paddy normally comes to the mills through two channels, 
namely, the big growers and the set of middlemen like fariahs, 
village merchants, beparis and aratdars. The growers themselves 
assemble about 30 per cent of the produce while the middlemen 
bring in 60 per cent to the mills. Another agency known as 
commission agent is responsible for assembling the remaining 
10 per cent of the marketable surplus to the mills. I hese agents 
are also financed by the mills and in certain cases utilise their 
own capital for investment. Some co-operative societies also 
work as commission agents of the mills. Distribution effected 
solely in the shape of rice is done through the agencies like 
brokers, wholesalers and retailers. 

The brokers formerly played a very important role in export 
trade of this commodity outside the district by securing orders 
on behalf of the private exporters, but this trade is now exclu¬ 
sively handled by the Food Corporation ol India. In the field 
of export trade there was previously a market practice known 
as bilticut under which a consignment was sent to any outside 
market for delivery to the consignor whose agent at that parti¬ 
cular place endorsed the railway receipt in favour of the pur¬ 
chaser on receipt of the sale price including the incidental costs. 

There are certain charges known as market charges which are 
recognised by custom and realised by the purchasers at the time 
of sale of the commodity put in the market-by growers or 
beparis; sometimes these charges are partially payable by the 
purchasers as well. Unscrupulous merchants taking advantage 
of the ignorance of the growers deduce exorbitant charges from 
the sale proceeds, depriving the latter of their legitimate share. 
Dhalta is* charged on the sellers at the rate of 2 seers per maund 
of paddy in all transactions up to the stage of mills to cover 


266 


BIRBHUM 


loss on account of driage and admixture of foreign materials like 
dust, stone and ether particles, etc. Iswarbritti is another charge 
levied on the sellers (growers or beparis) by the buyers (whole¬ 
sale stockists or mills) at the rate of 16 paise per transaction ot 
every Rs. 100 as contribution towards a charitable fund. Koyali, 
a weighment charge, is levied at 6 paise per bag of maunds, 
payable of sellers at all stages of assembling." Hat charges at 
the rate of 25 paise per head-load of paddy, 50 paise per cart¬ 
load of 8-10 maunds and Rs. 2/- per lorry-load of 150 maunds 
are levied on all transactions at any market place. Such charges 
are not levied on stocks assembled at mill premises. Besides, 
there are other charges like the commission of the arcitdars for 
the services rendered by them as also the brokerage of the 
brokers. 

Potato is another important crop grown in this district which 
also imports a sizeable quantity of the same, about 20 thousand 
quintals, between August and October. Middlemen’s roll in 
the trade of this commodity is not very significant, only 25 per 
cent of the annual turnover being handled by them. The bulk, 
that is, 75 per cent is sold by the growers themselves, mostly 
to the stockists or wholesalers at the assembling markets. Some¬ 
times, the growers themselves operate as middlemen through the 
system known as aratdari in which they maintain godowns at 
the assembling or wholesale markets and hold the stock on behalf 
of the growers or other beparis for sale in exchange of com¬ 
mission. In transactions of potato also certain market charges 
are levied which are as follows. Iswarbritti at the rate of 25 
paise for transaction of every Rs. 100 is realised by^the aratdars. 
Weighment charges are realised at the rate of 6 paise .per bag 
of 1 maund and 10 seers from the sellers at all stages. Hat 
charges are levied at the rate of 25 paise for small lots, 75 paise 
per cart-load and Rs. 2.50 per lorry-load of the commodity on 
all sellers who assemble their stock in the market. 

The main items of agricultural produce imported into the 
district are wheat, mustard seeds, pulses and ginger, while rice 
comprises the main exported commodity. Import ol rice and 
export of paddy occur only during an emergency and that too 
on Government account. Wheat is likewise imported at Govern¬ 
ment level. The district produces about 40 thousand quintals 
of mustard-oil extracted from one lakh quintal of mustard seeds 
imported from Bihar, U.P. and Punjab, of which 80, per cent 
is consumed internally and the remaining 20 per cent is exported 


s 

j 

j • 

* 

0 

0 

s 

* 

• 

* j 


• ' BANKING, TRADE & 

• 

COMMERCE 

267 

to Burdwan and Murshidabad. The following two 

tables give * 

relevant 

statistics about 

the main 

items of import 

and export 

during the years 1965-66, 1966-67 and 1967-68 which will show 
that the district's all along left with favourable balance of trade. 

• 

> 

* 

TABLE 

i 


j IMPORT 

OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE INTO BIRBHUM DISTRICT 

* 



Volume 

Value 


Commo¬ 


(in lakhs 

in lakhs 


dities 

Year 

of quintals) 

of rupees) 

Source 

Rice 

1965-66 

0.05 

3.39 



1966-67 

0.08 

8.14 



1967-68 

Nil 

Nil 


Wheat 

1965-66 

0.39 

21.56 

Bihar U.P.. 


1966-67 

0.79 

48.98 

Punjab & 


1967-68 

0.95 

75.6Q 

Rajasthan 

Mustard- 

1965-66 

0.90 

112.50 

Bihar, U.P. 

seed 

1966-67 

0.95 

123.50 



1967-68 

J 

1.00 

128.00 


Pulses 

1965-66 

0.80 

72.00 

Bihar, U.P., 


1966-67 

0.70 

60.00 

Punjab 


1967-68 

0.65 

55.00 


Ginger 

1965-66 

0.015 

2.00 



1966-67 

0.016 

2.20 



1967-68 

0.016 

2.25 


Total 

1965-66 

2.155 

211.45 

j 


1966-67 

2.536 

242.82 

0 


1967-68 

2.616 

260.85 

_ 0 


w 


0 

J 

l 

i • 

J 


0 J 



268 


BIRBHUM 


Regulated 

market 


Centres of 
wholesale & 
retail 
business 

Fairs and 
rnelas 



v TABLE 2 

EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE FROM BIRBHUM DISTRICT 




Volume 

C 

Value 


Commo¬ 


(in lakhs 

(in lakhs 

Source 

dities 

Y ear 

of quintals) 

of rupees )/ 


Paddy 

1965-66 

0.30 

15.17 

Nadia, 
Murshida- 
bad, 24-Par- 
ganas 


1966-67 

0.07 

4.11 

%• 


1967-68 

0.15 

18.16 

»i 

Rice 

1965-66 

10.07 

704.71 



1966-67 

5.66 

566.11 



1967-68 

5.80 

869.40 

j 

Total 

1965-66 

10.37 

719.88 



1966-67 

5.73 

570.22 



1967-68 

5.95 

887.56 


Besides, 

the district 

exports some 

quantity of 

handloom pro- 


ducts, cotton textiles, firebricks and potteries and imports coal 
and miscellaneous industrial products, chiefly consumer goods, 
from various places outside the district. No authoritative in¬ 
formation about the volume and value of these articles of export 
and import is available. 

Regulated markets are restricted chiefly to procurement and 
distribution of paddy, rice and wheat and are look*ed after by 
the staff of the Food Corporation of India and of the Food and 
Supplies Department. 

A comprehensive list of wholesale and retail marketing centres 
of the district dealing chiefly in paddy, rice, potato and vegetables 
has been given in Appendix —C at the end of this Chapter. 

The fairs and rnelas held chiefly on religious occasions are of 
great economic importance for marketing of agricultural produce 
in rural areas where they are primarily concentrated. A com¬ 
prehensive list of fairs and rnelas held in the district round the 
year showing their location, time, occasion, duration and approxi¬ 
mate total attendance, as far as available, is given in Appendix—D 
to this Chapter. 

- -- ^ 

Somre: District Agricultural Marketing Officer, Birhhum and Superin- 
Yendent of Agricultural Marketing, Western Range, Burdwan. 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


269 


I here are 14 large-sized primary co-operative agricultural * 
marketing societies in the district. Their position as on 30 June 
1969 is indicated in the table below.’ 

CO-OPERATIVE MARKETING SOCIETIES IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1969 


Name of 


Total 

share 

Marketing 

No.-of 

capital 

Societies 

members 

(paid up) 

Dubrajpur Co-op. 

■ 3'7 

Rs. 

16,970 

Agril. Marketing 
Society Ltd. 
Ilambazar Thana 

263 

25,080 


Co-op. Agril. 
Marketing: 
Society Ltd. 


Balipur Krishija 
Bipanan Samabaya 
Samity Ltd. 

>33 

20,820 

Nanur thana Co-op. 
Agril. Marketing- 
Society Ltd. 

226 

31,08.3 

Mathpalsa Co-op. 

161 

61,605 

Multipurpose 

Society Ltd. 


Ahmadpur Jana- 
Kalyan Co-op. 

Agril. Marketing 
Society Ltd. j 

90 

25,490 

Mabammad Bazar 
Central Co-op. 
Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

164 

31,850 

Labhpur thana 
Co-op. Agril. 
Marketing- 
Society Ltd. 

>74 

-'5.110 

Murarai thana 
Large-sized Co-op. 
Agril. Marketing 
Society Ltd. 

92 1 1 

,02,617 

Makarpur Co-op. 
Large-sized 

Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

214 

13,250 

1 Source: Assistant 

Registrar of Co 


Work i ng 
capital 
includ¬ 
ing Govt, 
contribu¬ 
tion 

Rs. 

40,387 

Value 
of sales 

Rs. 

2.36,304 

Profit (+) 
loss (-) 

Rs 

(-) C369 

36,080 

1,87,167 

(+) 

9.247 

37.44- 

3,89,423 

(+) 

5.423 

49,686 

>>55. 0 58 

(-) 

2-579 

73*457 

1,99.264 

(-) 

3.340 

51.892 

4,11,481 

( + ) 

2,884 

45.704 

5.74.155 

(-b) 

2,237 

48.373 

. 1.94.238 

(~) 

5,066 

.95.904 

6,52,813 

(~) 

6,791 

27.889 

3,50,516 

(-) 

8,218 


operative Societies, Birblium. 


Co-operativ 

Marketing 


270 


B1RBHUM 


CO-OPERATIVE MARKETING SOCIETIES IN 
BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1969 — (Contd.) 


Procurement 
and distribution 


Name of 

Total 

share 

Working 
capital 
includ¬ 
ing Govt. 

c 

Value 

Profit (+) 

Marketing No.-of 

capital 

contribu¬ 

of sales 

loss ( —) 

Societies members 

(paid up) 

tion 



Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rani pur hat Large- 104 

23,(113 

69,042 

2,99.665 

(-) 615 

sized Agril. 

Co-op. Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

Nalhati thana 1,139 

65,790 

L 39.297 

6,18,923 

(-) i 5 .°i 5 

Co-op. Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

Suri thana Co-op. 28b 

3 . 55 . 93 ° 

4,70,886 

20,11,520 

(+) 15.621 

Agril. Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

Rajnagar thana 221 

3 . 5 *° 

14 T 72 

8,604 

3 

T 

Co-op. Agril. 

Marketing 

Society Ltd. 

Total 4,413 

8,02,720 

13,00,211 

62,89,131 

(+) 35.612 
(-) 44,693 


Besides, the Birbhum Wholesale Consumers’ Co-operative 
Society Ltd., established in 1966 and the only one of its kind 
in the district, deserves mention. On 30 June 1969, its mem¬ 
bership was 1,018; total share capital (paid up) 1,43,500; 
share capital paid up by the Government Rs. 1,12,000 ; working 
capital (including Government contribution) Rs. 3,88,211 ; value 
of sales Rs. 9,39,015 and loss Rs. 24,8503 L 

The Food Corporation of India is now in exclusive charge 
of procurement and distribution of paddy, rice, wheat, etc. in 
the district. During 1969, it procured rice weighing 74,674 metric 
tonnes, valued at Rs. 7,99,01,180 and paddy weighing 24,117 
metric tonnes valued at Rs. 1,57,99,560. Its purchase rate per 
quintal of different categories of rice and paddy is as follows: 
amort fine rice Rs. 98.40, superfine rice Rs. 107.10, common rice 
Rs. 92.90, aman fine paddy Rs. 59, superfine paddy Rs. 62 and 
common paddy Rs. 56, the corresponding issue rate per quintal 
of different categories of rice to the distributor being Rs. 124.70 
for aman fine rice, Rs. 134.70 for superfine rice and Rs. 116.70 
for common rice. 1 2 


1 Source: Assistant Registrar of Co-operative Societies, Birbhum, Suri. 

2 Source*- Manager, Food Corporation of India, Suri. 


t 






J 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


Industries in the district, though very few in number, arc 
affiliated to some chambers of commerce or others which have 
their headquarters in Calcutta. 

Dissemination -of trade news, etc. is mainly done by the 
commercial journals as also by the Agricultural Marketing 
D'rectorate of the State Government. The Calcutta station of 
the All India Radio also broadcasts market news regularly. 

Prior to the introduction of the metric system of weights and 
measures in the district with effect from 1 April 1962 the 

bTside WC ', 8 h ht | an , d measures - as indicated below '- operated side 
bv side, wuh local systems, vestiges of which are still to be 

found persisting in various parts of the district. 

Weights __ maund (40 seers), seer (80 and 60 tolas), 

poa, chhatak. 

Liquid measure - Gallon, quart, pint, gill. 


Liquid measure 
(English) 

Linear measure 
Land measure 
Cloth measure 


mile, yard, foot, inch. 
bigha, kathci, chhatak. 
Gaj, hath , giro, anguli. 


Local weights and measures which were and still are in vogue 
e^as lollows. In Sun sub-division, kachha seer equivalent to 

54 - tolas were used for weighing all kinds of goods, batkari 

r “*-• s ss ts 

"" eqUiValem 58 l t0las -re in general use. Besides, 

measures of capacity like seer (equivalent to I quart or 58 

, 5 16 

loas) and pai (29-tolas) were used for measuring rice, oil-seeds, 

miik and „/„ Bamboo chunga (equivalent'to 70 tolas in Suri 

S I * Ram P urha ‘) (equivalent ,o l ! r 

Sun and 7J seers ,n Rampurhat) were also in user 

* „ Suri. 


Organs for 
dissemination 
trade news 


Weights and 
measures 


p. 178. 


in, Calcutta, 1910. 


j 


Extent and incidence of i 






272 


BIRBHUM 


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- J BANklNG, TRADE & COMMERCE 


» j 

273 


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j 


APPENDIX B— Contd. 

Debts (Cash) by source in Sahajapur Village in Birbhum District during 1961 


V. 


274 


BIRBHUM 


on 

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1365 

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240 

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362 

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515 

(100.0) 

877 

(100.0) 

5987 

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410 

(44.8) 

1280 

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1 ! 

332 

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570 

(100.0) 

970 

(100.0) 

240 

(100.0) 

162 

(100.0) 

215 

(100.0) 

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(100.0) 

4087 

(100.0) 

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(24.5) 

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162 

(100.0) 

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(30.2) 

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1497 

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(3.7) 

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1590 

(38.9) 

345 

(100.0) 

395 

(100.0) 

1 1 

200 

(100.0) 

300 

(100.0) 

500 

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7 2112 



BACKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


275 


APPENDIX C 

List of Markets in Birbhura District 

Principal 


* 


agricultural 

Mainly 

Daily 

Year of 

Days of 

commodities 

; wholesale 

average 

Name of market origin 

sitting 

handled 

or retail 

attendance 

BOLPUR P.S. ' 

Bolpur Hat 1902 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

Vegetables 

Rctai 1 

5,000 

Bahiri Hat 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

Paddy, rice, 
vegetables 

99 

500 

Singi Hat 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

* > 

99 

500 

DIJBRAJPUR P.S. 

Chinpai Hat — 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

99 

99 

500 

Dubrajpur 1802 

Hat 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

99 

Wholesale- 

cum-retail 

2,000 

Hetampur Hat Above 
40 years 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

99 

Retail 

500 

Kantori Hat 

Sundays 

99 

9 9 

500 

Sahapur Hat 

Tuesdays & 
.Saturdays 

9 9 

9 9 

250 

ILAMBAZAR P.S. 

Ilambazar Above 

Daily 

9 9 

9 9 

200 

t 30 years 

Ilambazar Hat Above Sundays & 
60 years Wednesdays 

9 9 

9 9 

1,500 

KHAYRASOL P.S. 

Babuijor Hat J Above 
60 years 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

9 9 

•* 

250 

Barra Hat ,, 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 


9 9 

250 

Hazratpur ,, 

Hat 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 


,, 

250 

Lokpur Hat „ 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

1 9 

” 

250 

Panchra Hat „ 

J 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

9 9 

■> 

250 


276 


BIRBHUM 


^ Principal 

agricultural 

Year of Days of commodities 
Name of market origin sitting handled 


Mainly Daily 

wholesale average 

or retail attendance 


LABHPUR P.S. 


Aradanga 

Hat 


194 ! Wednesdays Paddy, rice, 

& Saturdays potato,brinjal 
and other 
vegetables 


250 


Chanhata Hat Above Sundays & Paddy, rice, Retail 
20 years Wednesdays potato,brinjal 
and other 
vegetables 


Daurka Hat 

Above Mondays & 
50 years Fridays 

9 9 

99 

250 

Kirnahar Hat 

1938 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 

99 

99 

250 

Laghosa Hat 

Above Sundays & 

15 years Thursdays 

99 

99 

250 

Tarulia Hat 

Above ,, 

50 years 

99 

99 

250 

Labhpur Hat 

9 9 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

9 9 

9 9 

600 

Labhpur Market ,, 

Daily 

9 9 

99 

250 

MAYURESWAR P.S. 





Motherpur 

Hat 

1825 

Wednesdays Vegetables, 
& Saturdays potato, gur 

Wholesale 
& retail 

2,000 

Dakshingram 

Hat 

1947 

Thursdays 
& Fridays 

Seasonal 

vegetables 

Retail 

200 

Kaleswar Hat 

1949 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 

9 9 

9 9 

250 

Mahisha Hat 

1954 

Tuesdays 
& Fridays 

9 9 

99 

200 

Ramnagar 

Hat 

1832 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

99 

99 

350 

Ratanpur Hat 

1954 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

99 

9 9 

- 300 

Mayureswar 

Hat 

1825 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

9 9 

99 

300 

Satpalsa Hat 

1880 

Tuesdays & Potato and 
Saturdays other 

Wholesale 

900 


vegetables <* 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


277 


Name of market 

Year of 
origin 

4 

Principal 
agricultural 
Days of commodities 
sitting handled 

Mainly 
wholesale 
or retail 

Daily 

average 

attendance 

MAHAMMAD BAZAR P.S. 




Deucha Hat 

1950 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

t 

99 

99 

200 

Mahammad 
Bazar Hat 

Above Tuesdays & 
50 years Saturdays 

99 

99 

500 

Makdumnagar 

Hat 

9 * 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 

9 9 

99 

250 

Sarenda Hat 

Above 

10 years 

Wednesdays 

Potato and 

other 

vegetables 

Wholesale 

250 

MURARAI P.S. 






Jajigram Hat 

1897 

Wednesdays Seasonal 
& Saturdays vegetables 

Retail 

300 

Paikar Hat 

1832 

* 

Sundays & 
Tuesdays 

Rice, seasonal „ 
vegetables 

900 

Rajgram Hat 

1807 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

Seasonal 

vegetables 

and cattle 

99 

800 

Murarai Hat 

1832 

9 9 

Seasonal 
vegetables & 
fish 

9 9 

400 

Murarai Hat 
(New) 

1832 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

Seasonal 

vegetables 

9 9 

300 

Ratanpur Hat 

* 

1954 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

9 9 

9 7 

300 

Chatra Hat 

1862 

Wednesdays 

Vegetables, 
cattle, 
poultry & 
timber 

Wholesale 
& retail 

2,000 

NALHATI P.S. " 


• 



Bhadrapur 

Hat 

1807 

Wednesdays Seasonal 
& Saturdays vegetables 

Wholesale 
& retail 

350 

Kaytha Hat 

1897 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

9 9 

* 9 

500 

Kurumgram 

Hat 

1897 

5 5 

9 9 

9 9 

300 

Lohapur Hat 

J 

1857 

Mondays & Seasonal 
Thursdays vegetables, 
rice 

9 9 

500 

Nalhati 

Market 

1936 

J 

Daily 

99 

9 9 

J 

* 500 

J 


BIRBHUM 


Principal 


Year of Days of 
Name of market origin sitting 

agricultural 

commodities 

handled 

Mainly 
wholesale 
or retail 

Daily 

average 

attendance 

Tejhati Hat 

1897 

Sundays & Seasonal 
Wednesdays vegetables 

9 9 

fc 

250 

Nalhati Hat 
(New) 

1948 

9 9 

9 9 

Whcvlesale- 

cum-retail 

700 

Nalhati Hat 
(Old) 

1850 

All days 
except Sun¬ 
days and 
Wednesdays 

Rice, pulses, 
vegetables, 
gur, onion, 
mango 


1,200 

NANUR P.S. 






Khujutipara 

Hat 

Above Sundays & 
50 years Wednesdays 

Paddy, rice. Wholesale- 
potato,brinjal cum-retail 
and other 
vegetables 

250 

Kirnahar Hat 

9 9 

Daily 

9 9 

99 

500 

RAJNAGAR P.S. 





Barabani Hat 

Above Tuesdays & 
50 years Saturdays 

Paddy, rice, 
potato, 
brinjal and 
other 
vegetables 

Wholesale- 

cum-retail 

300 

Rajnagar 

Bazar 

} } 

Daily 

)> 

9 9 

200 

Rajnagar Hat 

Above Sundays & 
40 years Thursdays 

99 

9 9 

1,500 

Tantipara Hat 

Above Wednesdays 
50 years & Saturdays 

99 

9 9 

700 

RAMPURHAT P.S. 





Baidpara Hat 

1950 

Mondays & 
Thursdays 

Seasonal 

vegetables 

9 9 

300 

Balia Paisa 

Hat 

1897 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

99 

)) 

300 

Belebera Hat 

1907 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

99 

99 

300 

Bishnupur 

Hat 

1790 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

Seasonal 
vegetables 
and rice 

99 

600 

Chandpara 

Hat 

1951 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

Seasonal 

vegetables 

9 9 

200 

Margram 

Market 

1877 

Daily 

99 

9 9 

* 400 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


279 


Name of market 

Year of 
origin 

Days of 
sitting 

Principal 

agricultural 

commodities 

handled 

Mainly 
wholesale 
or retail 

Daily 

average 

attendance 

Nandigram 

Hat 

4 

1897 

Wednesdays 
& Saturdays 

99 

9 9 

250 

Narayanpur 

Hat 

1882 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 

9 9 

9 9 

500 

Taraper Hat 

1907 

Tuesdays & 
Saturdays 

9 9 

9 9 

200 

Rampurhat 

Hat 

1873 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

Potato, other 
vegetables 

9 9 

1,200 

Rampurhat 
Cattle Hat 

1892 

Thursdays 

Cattle 

9 9 

400 

SATNTHIA P.S. 






Ahmadpur 

Hat 

1879 

Sundays & 
Wednesdays 

Summer & 
winter 
vegetables, 
potato, onion 
etc. 

Wholesale- 

cum-retail 

1 ) 

4,000 

Ahmadpur 

Market 

Above 
50 years 

Daily 

Paddy, rice. Wholesale 

mustard, 

cane, pulses 

(whole and 

split) mustard 

oil, gur and 

straw 

2,000 

Sainthia Hat 

1947 

Mondays & 
Fridays 

Vegetables 

Wholesale- 

cum-retail 

2,400 

Sainthia Hat 

Above Fridays & 

25 years Tuesdays 

Paddy, rice, 
vegetables 

Retail 

300 

Sainthia 

Market 

1888 

Daily 

Paddy, rice, 
pulses, oil, 
oilcakes, gur. 
spices, wheat 

Wholesale 

300 

Sainthia 
Garnur Hat 

,Above 
50 years 

Saturdays 

Cattle 

j i 

300 

SURI P.S. 






Suri Market 

1818 

Daily 

Vegetables, 
fish, meat, 
paddy 

Retail 

2,000 

Karidhya Hat 

Above 

100 

years 

Sundays & 
Thursdays 

Paddy, rice, 
vegetables 

9 9 

800 

Purandarpur 
Hat * 

9 9 

> > 

9 9 

9 9 

500 


280 


BIRBHUM 


APPENDIX D 


List of Fairs and Melas in Birbhum District 


Month of Occurrence 

Place of Occurrence ——--- 

English Bengali 
Calendar Calendar 

BOLPUR P.S. 


Religious 

or other Duration Total 
occasion of days Attendance 
(Approx.) 


Bahiri 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Maghi 

Purnima 

5 

3,000 

Bolpur Town 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Agricultural 
& Industrial 

Fair 

4 

500 

Dwarakanathpur Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Goshthashtami 

1 

200 

Ganara 

May-June 

Jyaistha 


2 

300 

Goalpara 

March-April Chaitra 

Kankalimata 

Puja 

2 

4,000 

Goalpara 

March-April Chaitra 
Purnima 

Dharmaraj 

Puja 

2 

2,000 

Kasba 

January 

1 st Magh 

Brahmadaitya 

Puja 

1 

100 

Laldaha 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Saraswati Puja 

4 

1,000 

Laldaha 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

3 

500 

Mahadebpur 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Gopal Puja 

3 

3,000 

Manoharpur 

January 

1 st Magh 

Brahmachari 

Puja 

2 

600 

Muluk 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Goshthashtami 

K 

450 

Munitala 

January 

Poush 

Poush Samkranti 

4 

1,000 

Nahina 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Purnima 

Dharmaraj 

Puja 

3 

1,500 

Purushottampur Dec.-Jan. 

Poush 

Poush Samkranti 

3 

1,000 

Raipur 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

— 

3 

300 

Salan 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Sree Panchami 

— 

800 

Santiniketan 

December 

Poush 

Poush Mela 

4 

15,000 

Sian 

December 

Poush 

Rishya Sringa 
Muni 

3 

1,000 

Simulia 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

— 

3 

3,000 

Singi 

— 

— 

Agrl. 

and Industrial Fair 

3 

c 4,000 

Sriniketanc 

February 

Magh 

Magh mela 

3 

5,000 



banking, trade & commerce 


281 


J 


Month of Occurrence 

Religiou s 
or other 

Total 

Duration Attendance 

Place ot uccurrence 

English 

Calendar 

Bengali 

Calendar 

occasion 

of days 

(Approx.) 

Srichandrapur Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Dol Purnima 

4 

2,000 

• 

Supur June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

300 

Supur Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Ras Purnima 

3 

500 

Suratheswar Tala Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

3 

300 


dubrajpur p.s. 


Bakreswar 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

8 

15,000 

Bandhrsal 

— 

— 

Dharmaraj Puja 

2 

100 

Belahari 

January 

Poush 

Poush Samkranti 

3 

300 

Berori 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Manasa Puja 

1 

2,000 

Chandidaspur 

March-April Chaitra 

Ramnavami 

4 

4,000 

Hetampur 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Saraswati Puja 

4 

3,000 

Chandipur 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Baisakhi 

Purnima 

1 

500 

Hetampur 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

3,000 

Hetampur 

July-August 

Sravan 

Jhulanjatra 

3 

500 

Islampur 

April 

Chaitra 

Chaitra 

Samkranti 

1 

500 

Islampur 

March-April Chaitra- 
Baisakh 

Fakir Saheb’s 
mela 

3 

500 

Jamthalia v 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Purnima 

Dharmaraj 

Puja 

1 

800 

Jatra 

January 

Poush 

Poush Samkranti 

3 

250 

Kaddang 

April-May- 

June 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Dharmaraj Puja 

' 6 

1,000 

Kalyanpur 

• 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Purnima 

Dharmaraj Puja 

3 

5,000 

Kendula 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Dharmaraj Puja 

1 

500 

Khageswar 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

2 

500 

Keta 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Dharma Puja 

1 

1,000 

Purnima 



Kuita 

— 

— 

Muharram 

1 

1,000 

Loba 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

500 

Loba 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kali Puja 

3 

4,000 


282 


BIRBHUM 


Month of Occurrence 


riuee oi uccurret 

ice---— 

English 

Calendar 

-•-— Religious Duration 

Bengali or other of days 

Calendar occasion 

Total 

Attendance 
(Approx.) 

Metela 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Dharmaraj Puja 

1 

12,000 

Sahapur 

March- 

April-May 

Chaitra- 

Baisakh 


7 

KOOO 

Uttardaha 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Dharmaraj Puja 

1 

300 

ILAMBAZAR P.S. 





Gaetia 

April-May- 

June 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Religious 

Festival 

5 

500 

Gangapur 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Dharmaraj Puja 

3 

250 

Gangapur 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Manasa Puja 

1 

1,000 

Gopalnagar 

June-July 

Ashad 

Ashadi Purnima 

1 

500 

Garisa 

May-June- 

July 

Jyaistha- 

Ashad 

— 

1 

500 

Ilambazar 

April-May- 

June 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Mahotsav 

4 

5,000 

Jaydeb Kenduli 

January 

Poush 

Poush Samkranti 

3 

50,000 

Katna 

Dec.-Jan.- 
Feb. 

Poush- 

Magh 

— 

2 

500 

Mangaldihi 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik- Raspurnima 
Agrahayan 

3 

500 

Purba Narayanpur — 

— 

Dharmaraj Puja 

3 

250 

KHAYRASOL P.S. 





Babuijor 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Saraswati Puja 

«. 

2 

400 

Bagasal 

January 

1st Magh 

Saraswati Puja 

1 

1,500 

Barra 

Jan.-Feb.- 
March 

Magh- 

Falgun 

Ganes Janani 

Puja 

% 

3 

500 

Bhabanigunj 

Jan.-Feb.- 
March 

Magh- 

Falgun 

Chandi Puja 

2 

800 

Bhadulia 

April-May- 

Junfe 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Dharma Puja 

2 

300 

Churar 

Oct.-Nov.- 
Dec. 

Kartik- 

Agrahayan 

Raspurnima 

3 

400 

Gernapahari 

Aug.-Sept.- 

Oct. 

Bhadra- 

Aswin 

Santali Mela 

1 

350 

Isgara 

% 

April-May- 

June 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Kali Puja 

3 * 

600 


l 


J 


V 


9 


• 

• 

BANKING, TRADE 

& COMMERCE 


283 

Month of Occurrence 

P1 n r*f» n f irranno .... . 

Religious 

or other Duration 
occasion of days 

Total " 
Attendance 
(Approx.) 

* IUWC v J 1 V^VVUI i VltVV 

English 

Calendar 

Bengali 

Calendar 

Jamalpur 

• 

April-May- 

June 

Baisakh- 

Jyaistha 

Manasa Puja 

3 

1,200 

Khayrasol 

m 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Goshthashtami 

1 

700 

Krishnapur 

Jan.-Feb.- 
March 

Magh- 

Falgun 

Chandi Puja 

1 

500 

Lower Kha 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

— 

7 

2,000 

Nakrakonda 

March-April 

Chaitra 

Dol Purnima 

2 

400 

Nundira 

Jan.-Feb.- 
March 

Magh- 

Falgun 

Gosain Puja 

1 

500 

Rasa 

March-April 

Chaitra 

Siva Puja 

1 

400 

LABHPUR P.S. 






Daurka 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

7 

4,000 

Dhandanga 

March-April 

May 

-Chaitra- 

Baisakh 

— 

2-4 

400 

Labhpur 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Purnima 

Fullara Debi 

Puja 

10 

3,000 

Mahespur 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kali Puja 

10 

5,000 

Phalagram 

April-May 

Baisakh- 

Purnima 

Dharmaraj Puja 

1 

800 

Purba Mahula 

— 

— 

Sannyasi 
Gosain’s Mela 

15 

2,000 

Rakhareswar 

• 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

10 

2,500 

MAYLIRESWAR P.S. 


- 



Aradhanamela 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

— 

3 

3,000 

Birchandrapur 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Goshthashtami 

7 

— 

• 

Dangal Muraldi 

January 

Poush 

Poush Samkrant 

i 3 

500 

Dheka 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Religious 

festival 

1 

800 

Fakirkhanamela 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

— 

7 

2,000 

Fatehpur 

> 

Every 

Saturday 

Kali Puja 

1 

400 

Jhikadda 

April 

Chaitra 

Chaitra 
Samkrant i 

1 

600 

Kaleswar 

J 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

J 

30* 

9 

3 


i 


t 


« 



* 

• 


284 


BIRBHUM 

% 

«. 


Month of Occurrence 

i Religious 


Place of Occurrence- 

• 

- or other Duratior 


English 

Bengali 

occasion 

of days 


Calendar 

Calendar 



Kamra 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

— 

4 

Kotasur 

April-May 

Baisakh 

— 

e 

7 

Kundala 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

• 

1 

Mallarpur 

April 

Chaitra 

Chaitra 

5 




Samkranti 


MAHAMMAD BAZAR P.S. 




A1 inagar 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Chandpir 

1 

Baliharpur 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Bijaya Dasami 

1 

Danjora 

July-Aug.- 

Sravan- 

Danjora Mela 

1 


Sept. 

Bhadra 



Danjora 

July-Aug.- 

Sravan- 

Raghunath 

1 


Sept. 

Bhadra 

Mela 


Dencha 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

Dighalgram 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

Dighalgram 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Brahraadaitya 

1 




Puja 


Dwarkota 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Goshthashtami 

3 

Ganpur 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatia 

1 

Haridaspur 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kali puja 

1 

Harinsinga 

April 

1st Bai¬ 

Charak Puja 

1 



sakh 



Hingla 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

w 

Jindharpur 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

Makdumnagar 

— 

— 

Muharram 

2 

Maulpur 

March-April Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

7 

Raghunathpur 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

t. 

1 

Raypur 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Sivaratri 

4 

Raypur 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

1 

Sanganpur 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Dharmaraj Puja 

1 

Uska 

March-April Chaitra 

Bar uni Snan 

1 

MURARAI P.S. 





Ambhna 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kartik Puja 

2 

Bahadurput 

March-April Chaitra 

Basanti Puja 

5 


Total 

Attendance 

(Approx.) 

3,000 

4,000 

1,500 

1,000 

4,000 

2,000 

700 

300 

500 

250 

1,000 

2,000 
1,000 
200 
150 

1,500 
500 
500 
6,000 
400 
1,000 
_ 500 

1,500 
200 

*. 500 
5,000 


* 


BACKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


285 


Place of Occurrence M ° n ‘ h ofo “™ce Religious 

English Bengali occasion 

Calendar Calendar 

Total j 

Duration Attendance 
of days (Approx.) 

Bhadiswar 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

2 

1,000 

Dalima 

* Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Saraswati Puja 

25 


Gopalpur 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Durga Puja 

1 

500 

Gorsha 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Laxmi Puja 

3 

500 

Jajigram 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Kali Puja 

5 

2,500 

Kanakpur 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Durga Puja 

1 

500 

Murarai 

Feb.-March, Falgun 

Sivaratri 

8 

2,000 

Ratanpur 

Feb.-March Falgun 

Sivaratri 

10 

10,000 

Rudranagar 

March-April Chaitra 

Basanti Puja 

8 


Sankhulia 

— 

— 

Muharram 

1 

700 

Tirgram 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kali Puja 

1 

300 

NALKATI P.S. 






Akalipur 

Sept.-Oct.- 
Nov. 

Aswin- 

Kartik 

Kali Puja 

10 

500 

Atgram 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Kali Puja 

3 

8 

200 

Bara 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Buropirer Mela 

1,500 

Barla 

April 

Chaitra Kali Puja 
Samkranti 

2 

3,000 

Barla 

June-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

300 

Bhadrapur * 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Syamsundar 

Puja 

6 

2,000 

Bilkandi 

April 

Chaitra 

Gajan 

2 

5,000 

Bujanga 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Kali Puja 

3 

500 

Bujanga 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Doljatra 

6 

1,500 

Bujanga 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak 

1 

800 

Bujanga 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Dharmaraj 
Thakur Puja 

6 

4,000 

Gosainpur 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak Puja 

1 

600 

Jagadhari 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Durga Puja 

3 

200 

Kaytha 

April 

Chaitra 

Charak 

1 

2,000 

Kurumgram 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Siva Puja 

5 

800 


f 


#. 

» 

* 

C 

k. 

1 

286 


BIRBHUM 

l 

t 

t 

r _ Month of Occurrence Religious 

Place of Occurrence r- 

\ ..it _ 


Erigligh 

Calendar 

Bengali 

Calendar 

— vn uiuv;i j-Furaiion 

occasion of days 

Lohapur 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Kali Puja 

7 

Madhura 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Siva Puja 

'' 2 

Madhura 

May-June 

Jyaistha 

Mahotsav 1 

1 

Nalhati 

March-April Chaitra 

Siva Puja 

1 

Nalhati 

Junc-July 

Ashad 

Rathajatra 

1 

RAMPURHAT P.S. 




Ayas 

Dec.-Jan. 

Poush 

Makar Saptami 

7 

Chitaspur 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Kali Puja 

3 

Chandipur 

(Tarapith) 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Taradcvi Puja 

10 

Gopalpur 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Damodarsiva 

Puja 

15 

Joghar 

March-April 

Chaitra 

Baruni Snan 

15 

Kaluha 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Baisakh i 
Purnima 

1 

Mandala 

Jan.-Feb. 

Magh 

Makar Snan 

15 

Margram 

Dec.-Jan. 

Poush 

Kali Puja 

1 

Podda 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Baisakh i 
Purnima 

J 

Tarapur 

March-April Chaitra 

— 

1 

Teldaha 

Feb.-March 

Falgun 

Mahotsav 

'3 

Udaypur 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kal i Puja 

2 

SAINTH1A P.S. 





Bella 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Bairagya «, 

Chander Puja 

3 

Bhalia 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Buddha Purnima 1 

SURI P.S. 





Ajoy Pur 

Dec.-Jan.- 
Feb. 

Poush- 

Magh 

Brahmadaitya 

Puja 

1 

Barabagan 

Jan.-Feb.- 
March 

Magh- 

Falgun 

Krishi Silpa 

75 

Behira 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Sarad 

3 „ 


Pradarsani 


Total 

Attendance 

(Approx.) 

1,000 
. 400 
100 
100 
300 

1,500 

1,500 

800 

200 

200 

500 

1,500 

500 

500 

700 

500 

2,000 

1,000 

5,000 

350 

20,000 

10,000 


c 


BANKING, TRADE & COMMERCE 


287 


Place of Occurrence 


Month of Occurrence Religious Total 

—- ——-—-or other Duration Attendance' 

English Bengali occasion of days (Approx.) 
Calendar Calendar 


Bhandirban Oct.-Nov. Kartik 

Dhanjabati . — _ 


Karidhya 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Kendua 

June-July 

Ashad 

Kendua 

Sept.-Oct. 

Aswin 

Kenbona 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Koma 

Oct.-Nov. 

Kartik 

Nagari 

Dec.-Jan.- 

Feb. 

Poush- 

Magh 

Patanda 

Dec.-Jan.- 

Feb. 

Poush- 

Magh 

Pather Chapri 

Feb.-March 
April 

Falgun- 

Chaitra 

Purandarpur 

April-May 

Baisakh 

Purandarpur 

January 

7-13th 
Magh 

Suri Town 

December 

11 -14th 
Poush 


Rasmela 

1 

7,000 

Urs Mela 

2 

7,000 

Goshtha Mela 

1 

500 

Rathajatra 

2 

5,000 

Saradekadasi 
mela (Day 
after V ijaya 
Dasani i) 

1 

9,000 

Ras Jatra 

1 

1,000 

Ras Jatra 

2 

4,000 

Brahniadaitya 

Puja 

1 

2,000 

Brahniadaitya 

Puja 

2 

4,000 

Data Sahib 

7 

10,000 

Dharmarajer 

Puja 

4 

3,000 

Gosainmcla 

— 

— 

Saradamela 


20.000 


« 



Old-Time Trade 
Routes and 
Highways 


CHAPTER VII 
COMMUNICATIONS 

The earliest known reference to the absence of any pathway 
whatsoever in this region is contained in a Jaina tradition which 
alludes to Mahavira’s travel in the “pathless countries of the 
has, in Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhumi.” Later travellers like 

, ln the 5th «ntury and Hiuen Tsang two centuries later 

travelled quite extensively and covered many portions of Bengal. 

next traveller ’ made a journey from Tamralipti to 
Buddha Gaya, a distance of about 60 Yojanas according to him. 
This led Oldham to suggest that there had long been at least 
two routes across the hilly country of Chotanagpur, “one leading 
from Banares and Gaya to the Midnapore district through the 
Hazaribagh and Manbhum districts, and the other through 
Monghyr, Santal Parganas, Birbhum and Bankura districts via 
Deoghar-Baidyanath, Sarath and Vishnupur, followed by Hindu 
Pilgrims to their sacred shrines of Banares, Gaya, Baidyanath and 
Jagarnath (Puri).” 1 

In the absence of historically correct information we cannot 
state with certainty the state of communications in this part of the 
country, until we come across more definite information. Yet the 
movements of large armies in and through this region suggest 
that there were serviceable routes to facilitate such movements 
Sher Khan, according to Tarikh-i-Daudi, “Laden with spoil and 
treasures from the Bengal king’s capital, crossed the Ganges below 
Rajmahal, and entering the Birbhum district went through the hill 
country and circumventing the Mughal army, proceeded to 
Rohtasgarh in 1538.” 2 Again, in the early part of 1742, an army 
of Maratha horse under Bhaskar Rao Pandit, swept over the 
Birbhum hills into the Burdwan district. Apparently, that invasion 
was made by the Deoghar route through the hilly country. 3 
Mir Jumla, after his occupation of Monghyr with its fortress, in 
order to outflank Shuja, moved through the south-east part of 
the Monghyr district across the hills and after twelve days’ toil 
emerged in Birbhum, marched past Suri across Belghatta, 4 - which 
lies to the south of Suti, close to the plain where the battle of 


1 C.E.A.W. Oldham — Routes, old and new from Lower Bengal up the 
country’ in Bengal Past and Present, July-September, 1024 p° 26 

2 ibid., p. 25 . 

3 ibid., p. 29 . 

i J. N. Sarkar — History of Aurangzib, Vol. II, p. 242 . u 


COMMUNICATIONS 


289 


Giria took place in 1763.' The account given seems “to indicate 
that he took practically the same line that was taken by Sher 
Khan (in the opposite direction). 2 

The existence of road, known locally as Gaur-Badshahi Road, 
at least as early as A.D. 1516 is attested by an Arabic inscription 
referring to the digging of a well by king Hussain Shah near it 3 
and traces of this road can still be seen in the south-eastern 
extremity of the district. This road witnessed many a strange 
scene —over it Daud Khan Karrani fled to Orissa in A.D. 1574, 
hotly pursued by Todar Mai, and next year he again marched 
over it in triumph to Tanda, but had to retreat in the following 
year along it to the south. This road came to limelight again in 
1624 when Prince Khurram (afterwards the Emperor Shah Jahan), 
in his revolt against his lather, marched over this road towards 
Rajmahal, driving the weak forces of the Bengal Nawab before 
him, and a year later he retired hurriedly along it on his way 
to the Deccan. This road again became a highway for con¬ 
tending armies in 1696 during the revolt of Subha Singh and 
Rahim Shah when the rebel army harried West Bengal from 
Midnapore to Rajmahal. Rahim Shah fled to Burdwan after his 
defeat at Bhagwangola, but on the outskirts of Burdwan he 
again suffered defeat and was killed by Prince Azim-us-Shan 
who moved slowly over this road from Rajmahal to Burdwan. 1 

In the Valentyn’s Map of Bengal compiled from notes left by 
Van den Broucke, the Dutch Governor of Chinsura during 1658- 
64, which happens to be the first map showing roads in the 
tract of country now forming the Birbhum district, “Baccaressoor” 
is entered with one road running south-east to Burdwan and 
another north-east to Cossimbazar. This map, however, does not 
show the old Badshahi road which can still be traced in the 
Jangipur-Burdwan Road running for some distance along the 
eastern border of the district. To the north, a short length passes 
close to the eastern boundary of the Nalhati thana, and in the 
south for some miles along the eastern boundary of the Labhpur 
thana, from which it proceeds through Mangalkot to Burdwan. 5 


l - 2 C.E.A.W. Oldham — ibid., p. 26 . 

3 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 1861 , p. 390 . 

*- 5 L.S.S.O.’Malley — Bengal District Gazetters: Birbhum. Calcutta, 
pp. 12-13, 79 . 


igio. 


290 


BIRBHUM 


At the beginning of the 19th century, the district had a few 
roads which were constructed by the Commercial Resident, 
Mr. Cheap for transport of goods to and from his factory at 
Suri—along the roads from Surul to Ganutia or to Katwa in 
Burdwan. The only road serviceable throughout the year was 
the one from Suri to Burdwan through Surul. In 1796 a road 
to Murshidabad was constructed but it was without bridges and 
drains. A road to Katwa and another to Deoghar were repaired 
at times by convict labour, but could not be kept in good condi¬ 
tion owing to insufficiency of such hands. At the time of settle¬ 
ments the zemindars were required to pay attention to the roads 
in their estates and they are reported to have kept them “in a 
passable state of repair’ when so ordered to do so by the Magis¬ 
trate. 1 “Some” wrote the Magistrate in 1818, “even planted 
roadside trees.” 2 

By 1910, there were a total of 657 miles of roads maintained 
by the District Board 182 miles of metalled roads, 303 miles 
of unmetalled roads, and 172 miles of village roads, all fair 
weather tracks. The most important of these roads are given in 
the following table. 3 

Important Roads maintained by District Board in Birbhum: 1910 


Location 

Length 


From 

To 

(miles) 

Unhridged rivers 

Suri 

Sainthia 

10* 

___ 

»» 

Dist. boundary 
on west (towards 




Dumka) 

8| 

— 

» 

Kalgram 

31* 

Kopai (22tfd mile) 

99 

Rajnagar 

m 

_ 

99 

Muhammad Bazar 

7* 

Mor (3rd mile) 

99 

Ajai river 

20 8 i 

Bakreswar (10th mile) 

Bolpur 

Ilambazar 

13 

Sal (16th mile) 

Hingla (19th mile) 

99 

Bengchatra 

10 


99 

Sakulipur 

12 

_ 

Dubrajpur 

Ilambazar 

16 

Sal (13th mile) 

Nalhati 

Nawada 

11 


Sainthia 

Mahesha 

11 

Mor (2nd mile) 

1 L.S.S.O.’Malley — ibid., p. yq. 

2 E. G. Drake-Brockman — ibid. p. 

3 LS,S.p.’MalIey — ibid., pp. 80-81 

3- 

t 




COMMUNICATIONS 


291 


Location Length 


From 

To 

{miles) 

Unbridged rivers 

Purandarpur 

Ajai river 

18 

Bakreswar & Kopai 

Muhamipad 

• 

13 

Dwaraka (8th mile) 

Bazar 

Mollarpur 


Kulay (12th mile) 

Surul 

Ganutia 

19f* 

Koi (15th mile) 

Dubrajpur 

Chandrapur via 
Bakreswar 

m 

Bakreswar (8th mile) 


“The Suri-Sainthia road and the Sainthia-Mahesha road are 
parts of the old road to Murshidabad, which is known to have 
been in existence at the end of the 18th century. The second 
road is part of the road from Bhagalpur to Suri (103 miles 
long), which is commonly known as the Dumka road. The Suri- 
Rajnagar road is another old road, having been formely the high 
road from Suri to Deoghar, which was also in existence at the 
end of the 18th century. The Nalhati-Nawada road forms part 
of the embankment of which the other part is occupied by the 
Nalhati branch railway. The road from Purandarpur is part of 
the old road from Suri to Burdwan via Surul, and dates back 
over 100 years, while the Surul-Ganutia is that made by Mr. Cheap 
when Commercial Resident at Surul.” 1 

On the recommendations of the Road Development Committee 
formed under the Chairmanship of Mr. M. R. Jayakar in 1928, 
the Government of India set up in 1929 a Central Road Fund 
(C.R.F.) with frhe proceeds of a surcharge on petrol which enabled 
the Central Government to make annual block grants to the 
Provinces for subsidizing provincial work on roads. As Bengal 
had then no development plan worth the name, the Government 
appointed Mr. J. King as Special Officer for road develop¬ 
ment in 1934, whose survey of the Birbhum district shows that 
it had on 31 March 1937 a total of 2,650 miles of metalled and 
unmetalled roads of various descriptions, of which 242 miles 
of metalled (laterite) and 353 miles of-unmetalled road were 
maintained by the District Board directly, 383 miles of un¬ 
metalled road were maintained by Local Boards working under 
the Central of District Boards, 28 miles of unmetalled road were 
maintained by the Municipalities and 29 miles of metalled 

# There was no trace of the first 3 miles of this road in 1910 . 

1 L.S.S.O.’Malley — ibid., pp. 80 - 81 . * 


292 


BIRBHUM 


(laterite) and 1,615 miles of unmetalled road were maintained by 
Union Boards. 1 The total annual expenditure on upkeep (based 
on the average for the quinquennium ending 31 March 1937) per 
mile of metalled road incurred by the District Board was Rs. 134 
and by the Union Boards Rs. 44, the corresponding figures of 
expenditure per mile of unmetalled road being Rs. 41 by the 
District Board, Rs. 13 by the Local Boards and Rs. 5 by the Union 
Boards. The Municipalities did not, however, furnish the relevant 
figures of expenditure for maintaining the unmetalled roads under 
their jurisdiction. Mr. King’s plan envisaged the provision of 
feeder roads, neglected so far, and the improvement of roads 
likely to compete with the Railways as also an integrated system 
of communications consisting of four different categories of roads 
for which he examined particulars relating to 190 miles of road 
and 4,769 running feet of bridging (including 4 major bridges 
and 475 minor bridges and culverts) and also the particulars of 
the bridges on the existing railway in the district, in order to 
study the important question of obstruction to the same caused 
by the construction of raised embankments. A census of traffic 
on some of the roads selected as representative of the several 
classes into which the existing road system could be .graded 
according to volume of traffic carried was also taken. The total 
length of improved roads, proposed by him comprised 305 miles 
(as detailed below) which included 125 miles of existing metalled 
road, 103 miles of existing unmetalled road and.. 77 miles of 
entirely new road. 2 The scheme would provide 1 mile of road 
in respect of every 5.6 sq. miles of area or in respect of every 
3,106 heads of population in the district and would directly serve 
96.2 per cent of the total area of the district. 3 It would further 
connect by road the district headquarters with that of the only 
outlying subdivision as also provide direct road connection with 
13 thana, headquarters, while the headquarters of the one remain¬ 
ing thana, although not directly connected, would be within 5 
miles of an improved road. 

' r' J 'i K w g ,~T C T? rehensive Re P° rt on R oad Development Projects in 

Bengal, Vol.—I. Calcutta, 1938 . p. 93 . J 

A list of District Board Roads has been given in Vol. II Appendix-V 

PP- 93'9o the above work. ’ rr ’ 

a - 3 ibid.,.p. 83 . 


• communications 


293 


IMPROVED ROADS IN BIRB1IUM DISTRICT PROPOSED 
IN THE KING PLAN 


Location 


A pproxi- 


From 

. To 

mate length 



in miles 

Classification 

Ilambazar 

Suri 

22 

Pro vincial-Tr unk 

Suri 

Sultanpur 

23 

99 99 

99 

Kenduli 

8 


Ilambazar 

Chandrapur 

26 

District-Main 

Dubrajpur 

Parsundi 

17 

District-Secondary 

Suri 

Rajnagar 

15 

District-Main 

Ilambazar 

Pakurhans 

27 


Purandarpur 

Kogram 

37 

99 99 

Labhpur 

Rampurhat 

29 

99 99 

Suri 

Nalhati 

44 


Sainthia 

Angargeria 

6 

99 99 

Bhatina 

Kamalpur 

18 

99 99 

Chakgopal 

Sailmail 

10 


Malaipur 

Mitrapur 

11 

99 99 

Chatra 

Jajigram 

12 

District-Secondary 


Total 

305 mile 



In 1941-42? the Government of India had frozen the C.R.F., 
and in 1943 convened the famous Nagpur Conference to formulate 
a co-ordinated road policy for the whole country. The Nagpur 

Plan envisaged the construction of three categories of roads_ 

national, provincial and local. The National Highways were 
to carry uninterrupted road traffic across the States, the provincial 
roads were to serve as the main arteries of trade, commerce 
and administration while the local roads were to be of two types 
namely, the district roads and the village roads, the former 
branching off from the National and State Highways and lying 
within 2 to 5 miles of important villages, while the latter were 
to be the outer link of this network connecting isolated rural 
settlements. The king report had to be modified in the light of 
the abovg recommendations and the Union Government finalized 


294 


BIRBHUM 


a plan for construction and improvement of roads for a period 
of 20 years beginning from 1946-47. 

Work along these lines commenced in 1948 but the whole 
scheme was reviewed again by the Planning Commission which 
laid down the following road building specifications in 1951. 
National and State Highways were to have 32 feet wide embank¬ 
ments and 12 feet wide metalled crust; curves and crossings 
were to bear an average speed of 40 to 50 miles per hour out¬ 
side urban limits; sufficient road-side land was to be kept 
reserved for future widening. The district roads were to follow 
the same specifications except that the width of the embankments 
was to be 24 feet only. The village roads were to have 16 feet 
embankments and would remain kutcha or be provided with 
either cement concrete or brick trackways and improved culverts 
so that they might serve as fair weather roads. 

A list of ‘A’ class roads taken up for construction during the 
First, Second and Third Five-Year Plans and since completed 
is given below. 


STATEMENT OF ROADS TAKEN UP FOR CONSTRUCTION DURING 
THE FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD PLAN PERIODS 


Name and 
category of 
Road 


Cost of construction 
of high ways & 
Length Width Maintained other roads 

{in Km.) {in ft.) by {in lakhs of rupees) 


1st Five Year Plan 

O 


Mahammad Bazar- 
Mollarpur Road 
(S.H.) 22.40 

Mollarpur- 
Rampurhat-N alhati 
Road („) 20.00 

Suri-Dubrajpur- 
Ilambazar 

Road („) 48.00 

Mahammad Bazar- 
Sainthia Rd. 

(M.D.R.) 12.80 


12 P. W. (Roads) Deptt. 

•J 



13.66 

24.75 

23.99 


7.11 



* COMMUNICATIONS 



Name and 

category of Length Width 
Road {in Km.) {in ft.) 

Suri-Mahammad * 


Bazar Road („) 
Bolpur-Ilambazar 

46.00 

12 

Road („) 

19.20 

12 

Bolpur-Santiniketan 


Road („) 
Bolpur-Sriniketan 

2.20 

12 

Road („) 
Bolpur-Palitpur 

4.00 

12 

Road („) 
Suri-Ahmadpur 

25.00 

12 

Road („) 

Dubrajpur- 

Pandabeswar 

20.80 

12 

Road („) 
Sriniketan- 

16.00 

10 

Purandarpur 

Rd. („) 
Suri-Rajnagar 

24.00 

10 

Rd. („) 

16.25 

10 

Rampurhat-Dumka 


Road („) 

7.00 

12 

Mahammad Bazar 
Kulkuri Road 

- 


(V.R.) 

4.00 

8 

Ahmadpur-Kagas" 
Rd. („) 

3.00 

8 

Nalhati- 
Bhabanandapur 
Road („) 

6.00 

8 

Bhatina-Narayanpur 


Road („) 

5.30 

8 

Bolpur-Nanoor 

Rd. („) • 

19.20 

10 


Cost of construction 
of high ways & 
Maintained other roads 

by {in lakhs of rupees). 

P. W. (Roads) Deptt. 5.88 

7.01 

3.21 

2.84 

„ 20.43 

6.06 

„ 5.06 

99 

1.46 

2.45 

0.77 

„ 0.61 

„ 0.51 

„ 0.53 

P. W. Deptt. 


4.13 



296 


BIRBHUM 


Name and 
category of 
Road 


Cost of construction 
Length Width Maintained of high ways & 
(in Km.) (in ft.) by other roads 

(in lakhs of rupees). 


2nd Five Year Plan 

Tilpara- 

Massanjore 


Road (M.D.R.) 9.60 10 

Ahmadpur-Kirnahar- 

Ramjibanpur 

Rd. („) 28.42 10 

Nalhati-Rajgaon 

Rd. („) 16.00 10 

Kotasur-Mayureswar 

Road (O.D.R.) 4.40 8 

Kirnahar-Nanoor 

Road („) 7.54 10 

Sriniketan- 

Purandarpur Road 

to Abinaspur 

Health Centre („) 2.20 8 

Dubrajpur- 

Bakreswar-Chandrapur 

Rd. (O.D.R.) 19.20 10 

Chowhatta-Hatia- 

Sainthia 

Road („) 18.40 10 

Rampurhat-Purulia 

Rd. („) 10.00 10 

Khagra-Joydeb- 

Kenduli Road 

(V.R.) 9.60 8 

Khayrasol-Panchra 

Rd. („) 10.00 7 

Birchandrapur- 

Hazipur-May-ureswar 

Road („) 12.80 8 

Parui-Batikar Road 

(V.R./C.R.F.) 10.40 8 


P. W. Deptt. 

1.94 

P. W. (Roads) Deptt. 

14.33 

j» 

17.39 

99 

2.76 

P. W. Deptt. 

5.03 

— 

1.03 

P. W. (Roads) Deptt. 

10.20 

1 

99 

6.97 

99 

5.06 

u 

P. W. Deptt. 

2.23 

P- W. (Roads) Deptt. 

2.26 

99 

6.78 


$9 


5.40 


COMMUNICATIONS 


297 


Name and 




Cost of construction 

category of Length Width Maintained 

of high ways & 

Road (in 

Km.) (in ft.) 

by 

other roads 





(in lakhs of rupees) 

Tarapur- 
Birchandrapur * 





Road (V.R.) 

5.00 

8 P. 

W. (Roads) Deptt. 4.55 

Rampurhat- 
Tarapur Rd. („) 

8.00 

8 

99 

4.58 

T akipur-Kusmoor 
Road („) 

Approach Road to 
Niramaya T.B. 
Sanatorium 

4.00 

8 

99 

1.90 

(S.D.F.R.) 

Link Road from 

1.20 

8 

99 

0.37 

Hetampur-Rajbati to 
Dubrajpur-Ilambazar 




Road („) 

3.06 

8 

99 

0.43 

Dubrajpur-Hetampur 




Feeder Road 
(C.D.P.) 

Labhpur C.D.P. 

3.52 

8 

99 

0.73 

3rd Five Year 

Plan 



Bolpur-Byepass 
Road (M.D.R.) 

6.32 

12 

99 

3.96 

Bolpur-KanKalitolla 




Road (O.D.R.) 
Ahmadpur-Bolpur 
Road to Kopai 

7.54 

10 

99 

3.10 

Rly. Stn. („) * 

Ramjibanpur- 

Majlispur 

8.67 

10 

99 

2.30 

Road („) 

7.20 

10 

99 

2.27 

Labhpur-Ganutia 

/ 




Road („) 

9.60 

8 

99 

— 

Batikar to Kurmitha 




Road (V.R.) 

3.74 

8 

99 

1.74 


Kotasur-Ramnagar 

Rd. („), 17.25 8 


99 


9.33 


298 


BIRBHUM 


^Name and 


Cost of construction 

category of 

Length Width Maintained 

of high ways & 

Road 

(in Km.) (in ft.) by 

other roads 

Purandarpur- 

Rangaipur 


(in lakhs erf rupees) 

Road („) 

9.60 8 P. W. (Roads) Deptt. 4.06 

Suri-Rajnagar 

i 


Road to Sisal 
farm („) 

7.62 8 

3.15 

Supur to Ajoy 
River Road („) 

3.71 8 

1.58 

Abinaspur-Sahapur 


Rd. („) 

10.86 8 

2.34 

Rampurhat- 

Dunigram 

Rd. („) 

9.00 8 

5.28 


Mollarpur-Rampurhat- 
Nalhati Road to 
Kasthogora 

Centre („) 2.50 

Bautia-Baidara 
Barrage Road („) 5.00 


8 

8 


1.91 

1.60 


Vehicles & 
conveyances 


Public 

transport 


The bullock-cart still plays a very prominent part in the 
economic life of the people, especially in the country-side, where 
it provides the most economical means of transport, mainly of 
goods and occasionally of passengers. Horse-drawn* carts are 
very rare in the district, but palanquins ( palki) are sometimes 
seen, especially in the rural areas for carrying passengers. 
While cycles can be seen in every nook and corner of the dis¬ 
trict, cycle-rickshaws are mainly concentrated in urban areas and 
in places of interest. The number qf all such \ypes of con¬ 
veyances is not, however, available. The district had in 1966 
a total of 443 licensed power-driven vehicles, of which heavy 
vehicles numbered 242, medium 112 and light 89, the corres¬ 
ponding figures in 1956 were 201, 54 and 58. There are only 
3 taxis in the district at present and private cars number 93. 

The district is provided with a network of bus-services radiat¬ 
ing mostly from Suri, Sainthia, Bolpur and Rampurhat and 
providing cheap communication facilities to almost every place 
of some importance not only within the district, but also Several 


J 


• • ' COMMUNICATIONS 299 

such places in the adjoining districts, even crossing the boundaries 4 
of the State. The fare charged is 6 paise per mile for kutcha 
road and 5 paise for pucca road. A list of bus routes, the 
length of each route, the number of buses per route and the 
number of trips per bus is given below. 

PARTICULARS OF BUS ROUTES IN OPERATION 
IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT 


No. of No. of trips 
buses per bus 


Name of bus route 

Length 

per route 

each day 

Suri-Visva Bharati via Ilambazar 

42 miles 

4 

2 

Suri-Sainthia 

12 „ 

5 

2 

Suri-Ahmadpur 

14 „ 

7 

2 

Suri-Rajnagar 

15 „ 

6 

3 

Suri-Bolpur via Panrui 

21 „ 

6 

2 

Suri-Lokepur via Dubrajpur 

32 „ 

4 

2 

Suri-Bhimgarh via Dubrajpur 

22 „ 

2 

2 

Suri-Kapistha-Darsandaria 

20 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Kapistha-Baliharpur 

17 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Rampurhat via Mollarpur 

31 „ 

7 

1 

Suri-Amjora 

9 „ 

3 

2 

Suri-Joydev-Kenduly via Dubrajpur 

22 „ 

2 

2 

Suri-Dubrajpur via Bakreswar 

23 „ 

3 

2 

Suri-Kamraghat via Sainthia 




and Mayureswar 

20 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Ganutia* via Ahmadpur & 




Labhpur 

20 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Kurmitha via Panrui 

19 „ 

2 

2 

Suri-Sainthia via Mahammad Bazar 


2 

2 

Suri-Kurmitha via Batikar 

19 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Palitpur via Panrui 




& Bolpur 

38 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Birchandrapur via Sainthia, 




Mayureswar 

28 

2 

2 

Suri-Lokepur 

33 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Kirnahar via Bolpur 

39 „ 

1 

2 

Suri-Nanoor via 




Ahmadpur-Kirnahar 

32 „ 

1 

2 

SainthiaJUlkunda 

14 „ 

2 

2 

si 

0 

J 



0 


300 


BIRBHUM 


Name of bus route 

Length 

No. of 
buses 
per route 

No. of trips 
per bus 
each day 

Sainthia-Lokepara 

14 miles 

1 

1 

Sainthia-Ganutia via 

Chowhatta & Labhpur 

18 „ 

c 2 

2 

Sainthia-Rampurhat 

31 „ 

1 

2 

Sainthia-Ramnagar 


1 

2 

Sainthia-Baliharpur 

26 „ 

1 

2 

Sainthia-Rajnagar via Suri 

27 „ 

1 

2 

Sainthia-Birchandrapur 

15 „ 

1 

2 

Bolpur-Palitpur 

16 „ 

6 

2 

Bolpur-Kirnahar via Nanoor 

17 „ 

7 

2 

Bolpur-Joydev-Kenduli 
via Uambazar 

28 „ 

1 

2 

Bolpur-Rampurhat 

53 „ 

2 

1 

Bolpur-Nachansagram 


1 

2 

Bolpur-Rajnagar via 
llambazar-Tantipara 

48 „ 

1 

2 

Bolpur-Daskalgram via Nanoor 

21 „ 

1 

2 

Bakreswar-Rampurhat via 
Kotasur-Birchandrapur-Tarapith 

56 „ 

1 

1 

Bhadrapur-Bhabanandapur 
via Nalhati 


1 

2 

Visva Bharati-Tantipara 
via Ilambazar 


1 

2 

Lokepur-Joydev-Kenduli 
via Dubrajpur 


r 

2 

Narayanpur-Bishnupur 
via Rampurhat 

21 „ 

5 

2 

Narayanpur-Tarapith via Rampurhat 18 „ 

1 

2 

Rampurhat-Khidirpur 

15 „ 

- 2 

2 

Rampurhat-Ghosegram 
via Birchandrapur 

16 „ 

1 

2 

Rampurhat-Ghosegram 
via Tarapith-Mollarpur 

20 „ 

1 

2 

Rampurhat-Mitrapur-Murarai 


1 

2 

Rampurhat-Chandpara via Hansan 

12 „ 

1 

2 

Rampurhat-Dunigram 

12 „ 

1 

2 

Rampurhat-Birchandrapur 
via Tarapith 

12 „ 

1 

- 2 



COMMUNICATIONS 


301 


Name of bus route 


No. of No. of trips 
buses per bus 
Length per route each day 


Rampurhat-Salbhadra via Mollarpur 21 miles 1 2 

Ramp’urhat-Bhimgarh 53 „ 1 2 

Rampurhat-Lohapur via Nalhati — 12 


Bsides, the following routes provide inter-district and inter¬ 
state communication facilities (the number of buses per route is 
given within brackets): Suri-Bankura (2), Suri-Durgapur (5), 
Suri-Burdwan (1), Suri-Berhampore (3), Bolpur-Durgapur (1), 
Sainthia-Berhampore (7), Sainthia-Panchthupi (2), Sainthia-Raghu- 
nathganj (3), Dubrajpur-Kundahit (1), Suri-Dumka via Massanjore 
(7), Suri-Deoghar (2), Suri-Bhagalpur (1), Sainthia-Dumka via 
Massanjore (2) via Asanboni (2), Rampurhat-Dumka (10), Murarai- 
Dumka (4) and Murarai-Pakur (1). All these bus services are 
privately owned except that only 4 buses belonging to the West 
Bengal State Transport Corporation ply on the Suri-Durgapur 
route. 

The first railway line in the district was opened in 1859 when 
the Sahibganj loop line of the Old East Indian Railway was 
extended beyond the Ajoy river. This is a broad gauge section 
(5'—6") with a total length of 65.50 miles (105 Km.) falling 
within the district. 1 The present Nalhati-Azimganj section of 
the Eastern Railway, originally constructed by the Indian Branch 
Railway Company as a 4 ft. gauge line and opened on 21 Decem¬ 
ber 1863 was taken over by the State on 31 March 1872 and it 
came to be known as Nalhati State Railway. It was incorporated 
with the East Indian Railway on 1 April 1892 and was opened 
as a broad gauge track (5£ ft.) on 15 July 1892. 2 The length of this 
section within the district is 11 miles (18 Km.). The construc¬ 
tion of the branch line from Sainthia to Andal, also a broad 
gauge line with a length of 30.50 miles (49 Km.), was completed 
by 1906 and was opened on 10 December 1906. 3 The Bhimgarh- 
Palasthali broad gauge line with a total length of 11 miles 
(18 Km.) within the district was opened on 15 May 1922. 4 


1-4 A. J. King—Comprehensive Report on Road Development Projects in 
Bengal, Government of Bengal, Calcutta, 1938, Vol-II, p. 91; History 
of Indian Railways corrected up to 31 March 1951, Government of 
India, New Delhi, 1954, p. 66. a 


J 


Rail Roads 


Origin of 
railways in 
tiie district 


302 


BIRBHUM 


Besides, the district is also served by a narrow gauge line (2'—6") 
from Ahmadpur to Katwa which was opened in 1917 under the 
ownership and management of M/s. McLeod & Co. It was 
taken over by the Eastern Railway with effect from 1 January 
1957. 1 The district is now served by the Howrah and Asansol 
Divisions of the Eastern Railway. 

The aforesaid five sections of the Eastern Railway with a total 
length of about 136 miles serve the district fairly well, but 
the tracts lying in the centre and east of the southern part of the 
district being somewhat far from the railways, are served to a 
lesser extent than the other parts. The district contains approxi¬ 
mately 8 miles of railway in respect of each 100 sq. miles of 
country. 

The following railway stations of the Eastern Railway fall in 
the district of Birbhum: on the Sahibganj Loop section — Bolpur, 
Prantik, Kopai, Ahmadpur Jn., Bataspur, Sainthia Jn., Godadhar- 
pur, Mollarpur, Tarapith Road, Rampurhat, Swadinpur, Nalhati 
Jn., Chatra, Murarai, Banshloi Bridge and Rajgram; on the 
Azimganj-Nalhati section — Takipur and Lohapur ; on the Andal- 
Sainthia section — Bhimgara, Panchra, Dubrajpur, Chinpai, Suri, 
Kunuri, Sainthia ; on the Bhimgara-Palasthali section — Raswan 
and on the Ahmadpur-Katwa section — Chowhatta Halt, Gopalpur 
Halt, Labhpur, Mahespur Halt, Kirnahar and Daskalgram. 
Except the Sahibganj Loop section, which is well served by 
several long distance trains and a few local trains, all other 
sections are not so well served. 

The unserviceable nature of the rivers flowing through the 
district has been responsible for the absence of river-borne traffic 
in this district. Naturally, the transport requirement of the 
district has to be met by the two wings of the modern inland 
transport, the rail-transport and the road-transport. The state¬ 
ment in Appendix A of this Chapter gives the latest available 


The Government purchased the property owned by the East Indian 
Railway company which was worked by' a reconstituted company till 
the end of 1924. Following the recommendations of a special committee 
formed under the Chairmanship of Sir W. Acqorth in 1920 to go into 
the evils of mixing up railway revenues with those of the general 
administration and unsuitability of company management of Indian 
Railways, the Government took over the East Indian Railway on 
1 January 1925 by terminating the previous contract with it. (History 
of Indian Railways corrected up to 31 March 1051, p. 65 and J. 
Johnson—The Economics of Indian Rail Transport, Bombay, 1963, 
P. 117). 

1 Source: »Chief Commercial Superintendent, Eastern Railway, Calcutta. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


303 


figures in respect of passenger and goods traffic originating from , 
the stations of the Eastern Railway within the district as also 
the corresponding earnings during the years 1965-66, 1966-67 and 
1967-68. 1 

Since the district is very backward industrially, its industrial 
products are few. Yet in the transportation of the products of 
its cottage indus-tries as also of the Mayurakshi Cotton Mills, 
railways no doubt play a significant role; more, however, in 
carrying the agricultural products within and to places outside 
the district. Bulk of the imported goods is also carried by the 
railways. The steady increase in the passenger and goods traffic 
as betrayed by the statement in Appendix A is an indication 
of the increasing role of the railways in the economic life of 
district. 

As observed by King 2 in 1938, the district is practically bereft 
of river borne traffic. The only navigable rivers are the Mor 
and the Ajoy which are exclusively used by small boats plying 
during the rains and then only down stream and on certain 
reaches of the rivers. 

The following road bridges over the rivers and rivulets flowing 
through this district deserve mention: Mayurakshi bridge (1013 
ft.) near Tilpara dam, Mayurakshi bridge (600 ft.) near Panch- 
thupi, Ajoy bridge (1747 ft.) on Panagarh-Ilambazar State 
Highway, Bakreswar bridge (275 ft.) on Panagarh-Ilambazar State 
Highway, Bakreswar bridge (217 ft. 4 in.) on the Dubrajpur- 
Chandrapur District Highwlay, Bakreswar bridge (274 ft.) on 
Suri-Dubrajpur Road, Chandrabhaga bridge (200 ft.) on Suri- 
Dubrajpur Road, Sal bridge (221 ft.) on Ilambazar-Dubrajpur 
Road, Kulia bridge (101 ft.) on Mollarpur-Mahammad Bazar 
Road, Dwarka bridge (281 ft.) near Deochati and Kopai bridge 
(140 ft.) on the Sriniketan-Purandarpur Road. 3 

A statement of road bridges constructed during the first three 
plan periods along with the type and utility as also period and 
cost of construction is given in Appendix C. 

Excluding minor privately owned ferries there were, at the 
beginning of the current century, nine public ferries in the dis¬ 
trict, controlled by the District Board. At present, only one 
ferry, the one across the Dwaraka river on the Mollarpur- 


Role of the 
railway in 
the economic 
life of the 
district 


Waterways 
Bridges & 
Ferries 


1 Source: Chief Commercial Superintendent, Eastern Railway, Calcutta. 

2 A. }. King—op. cit., p. 8o. 

3 L. 'S. *S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers, Birbhum, Calcutta, 1910. 

pp. 81-82. A. J. King—loc. cit, s 


304 


BIRBHUM 


Travel and 

Tourist 

Facilities 


Post Tele¬ 
graphs AND 
Telephones 


Kotasur Road is maintained by the Birbhum Zilla Parishad and 
those across Mayurakshi, Sal, Hinglo, Ajoy, Laghata and 
Brahmani have been taken over by Government in course of 
taking over the connecting roads. 1 . 


Transport facilities available in this district has been described 
earlier in this Chapter. Almost all important places in this 
district are connected by a network of bus services. Such ser¬ 
vices now extend far beyond the border of the district to the 
adjoining districts of Murshidabad and Burdawn and to the 
districts of Dumka, Deoghar and Bhagalpur in the adjoining 
state of Bihar. For a short travel, the cycle rickshaws serve as 
the most convenient medium of transport and are available in 
almost all places of interest. The Tourist Bureau of the State 
Government arranges occasional trips from Calcutta to Santi- 
niketan and Bakreswar and prior information thereof is given 
to the intending tourists through press advertisements. The best 
time to visit the district is autumn and spring, though a sizeable 
proportion of the tourists prefer winter even because of numerous 
fairs and festivals occurring at that time —not to speak of the 
Pous and Magh melas at Santiniketan and Sriniketan. Places 
attractive to the tourists have been described later in Chapter 
XVI and availability of accommodation is indicated in the 
statement in Appendix D. 


In 1910, there were 68 post offices in the district and the 
number of postal articles delivered in 1908 were 2,017, 964, 
including 6,23,350 letters, 1,114,858 postcards, 82,472 packets! 
1,45,574 newspapers and 21,710 parcels; while the values of 
money-orders, outgoing and incoming were Rs. 1,102,157 and 
Rs. 5,98,539 respectively and the amount deposited in 3,292 
Savings Bank Accounts were Rs. 1,64,088. 2 There were postal 
telegraph offices at Suri, Bolpur, Hetampur, Rajbati, Murarai, 
Nalhati. Rampurhat, and Sainthia. 3 

There were a total of 94 post offices in the district in 1947. 
At present, for a population of 14.56 lakhs there are 326 post 


1 Source: Administrator, Zilla Parishad, Birbhum. 

2 ' 3 L. S. S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birbhum. Calcutta, 1910. 

p. 22. o 




3 COMMUNICATIONS 


offices in the district. They are spread out as follows: cne 
Head Office at Suri, 40 Sub-Offices and 285 Branch Offices. 
Only 315 villages out of a total of 2,486 villages are directly 
served by post offices. The average number and class of postal 
articles handled in these post offices of the district per month 
(March 1969) were as follows: Money Orders issued 25.679, 
Money Orders recived 22,481, Registered letters received 17.635, 
Registered Parcels received 1,085, Insured letters received 381, 
Insured Parcels received 108. 1 (A list of Post Offices in the dis¬ 
trict is given in Appendix B). 

There is no departmental telegraph office in the district. The 
following eighteen are combined Post and Telegraph offices. 


Telegraph 


1 . 

Ahmadpur 

10. 

Nalhati 

2. 

Bolpur 

11 . 

Niramay Gi 

3. 

Chandidas Nanoor 

12 . 

Paikar 

4. 

Dubrajpur 

13. 

Ram pur hat 

5. 

Hetampur 

14. 

Sainthia 

6. 

Kirnahar 

15. 

Santiniketan 

7. 

Labhpur 

16. 

Suri 

8. 

Murarai 

17. 

Sriniketan 

9. 

Mollarpur 

18. 

Rajnagar 


There were in all 1,017 telephones in September 1970 dislri- Telephones 
buted as follows: 


Exchange 


Number of telephones 


l.* 

Dubrajpur 

82 

2. 

Suri 

‘ 265 

3. 

Bolpur 

265 

4. 

Ahmadpur 

33 

5. 

Liibhpur 

23 

6. 

Kirnahar 

23 

7. 

Mahammad Bazar 

9 

8. 

Sainthia 

135 

9. 

Rampurhat 

131 

10. 

Nalhati 

35 

11. 

Mollarpur 

16 


Sourced Superintendent of Post Offices, Suri. 


20 


Passenger and Goods Traffic daring 1965-66, 1966-67 and 1967-68 at stations on Eastern Railway within Birbhum District 


306 


BIRBHUM 


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COMMUNICATIONS 


307 


ON On | 
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tJ- rt r~' «n no <o nO 

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i/n i/n vC m m ro noncon 

INININ 


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ill ill 

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on on On ON on On 


no r— oo 

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APPENDIX A ( Contd.) 


Sr 


308 


BIRBHUM 


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6 



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1965 - 66 35.1 18.3 

1966 - 67 33.4 17.0 

1967 - 68 32.9 17.5 


* 


* 




COMMUNICATIONS 


309 


I I 


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c~( 1 ct 


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jjgssj 
I ?|5 § 




310 


BIRBHUM 


APPENDIX B 



LIST OF POST OFFICES IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT 
ON 1 MAY 1969 


SURI H.O. *11 P.C.O. (2nd Class) 

BIRBHUM DIVISION, SURF 

Bara Alunda — S 

Baidyanathpur — S 

Baliharpur — ES 

Bhurkuna — E 

Bishnupur-Kulkuri — S 

Chinpai — SR 

Cliaricha — S 

Damdama — E 

Deucha — S 

Ikra — S 

Januri — S 

Kabilpur — S 

Kapista — E 

Khatanga — S 

Langulia — S 

Mohubona — E 

Nimdaspur 

Panuria — S 

Puranagram — S 

Purandarpur — SI 

Rampur — S 

Sarenda — S 

Saharakurl — S 

Shahpur — R 

ABINASHPUR S.O. 

Batikar — SR 
Gadadharpur — ES 
Gargaria — S 
Kurmitha — E 
Mangaldihl — S 
Panrui — S 
Shikarpur — S 
Talibpur ES 


COMMUNICATIONS 


AHMADPUR *11 P.C.O. 

Bagrakanda — S 
Belia 

Bataspur — E 
Bhalkuti — S . 

Chahatta — SR 
Chotosangra — S* 

Dewaschandpur — S 
Hatia — SR 
Konarpur 
Kurumshah — S 
Laghosa — E 
Mohodary — S 
Paharpur 
Purbasiur — ES 

BARHRA E.D.S.O. PCO (Phonocom) 

BASWA S.O. 

Laha — ES 

BOLPUR BAZAR (1DDF BOLPUR) S.O. + 
BOLPUR COURT (NDDF BOLPUR) EDSO + 
BHADRAPUR EDSO R 
BOLPUR *11 P.C.O. 

A1 band ha — S 
Bahiri — S 
Belhati — S 
Bengchatra — S 

Chandidas Nanoor — Si (Phonocom) 

Charkalgran. — SI 

Darpasila — E 

Daranda — E 

Hatserandi — SR 

Jalandi — SR 

Laldaha — S 

Mohanpur — ES 

Muluk — S 

Nahina — E 

Pafuri — ES 

Pakurhans 

Panchsowa — S 

Raipur — SI 

Rajatpur — S 

Saota — S 


312 


BIRBHUM 


Sian — S 
Singhee — S 
Sitapur 

Supur-Birbhum — S 
Uchkaran 

DUBRAJPUR *11 P.C.O. 

Bagdahari — S 
Balijuri — S 
Bakreswar — S 
Churar — S 

Gopalpur-Birbhum — SL 
Jahidpur — E 
Jophlai — S 
Kukhutia — S 
Lokepur — S 
Lakshminarayanpur — S 
Metala — S 
Paigdra— E 
Panchrahat — S 
Rupaspur — ES 

HETAMPUR RAJBAT1 II P.C.O. 

Ghoratari — S 

Jatra — S 

Joydevkenduli — S 

Kandighi — S 

Khandagram — S 

Kota'— S 

Pachhiara — S 

1LAMBAZAR P.C.O. (Phonocom) 

Chunpalashi — E 

Dhalla 

Dumrut 

Ghurisha — S 

ft 

Hedogora — S 
Moukhira — S 
Payer — ES 
Shunmuni — ES 
Ushardihi — E 

KHOv'RASOLE P.C.O. (Phonocom) 

Babuijore — S 

Hazratpur — S 

Kankartala 

Nabasan — E 



COMMUNICATIONS 


Nakrakonda — S 
Parsundi 

Rasa — S (P.C.O.) 
Sagarbhanga — E 
KARIDHYA P.C.O. 
Bhaba'nipur — S 
Ganeshpur - - S * 
Ghatdurlovpur — S 
Laujore — S 
Madhaipur — S 
Nagori — S 
Parulia Hazrapur — E 
Rajganj — S 
Raotara — E 
Sajina — E 
Tabadumra •— E 
KSRNAHAR II P.C.O. 
Aligram — SR 
Brahmanpara 
Dhrubabati 
Koreya 
Feugram — E 
Nurpur — ES 
KHUJUTIPARA S.O. 
Bandar 

Brahmankhanda — E 
Gonnaserandi — S 
Sakodda — • 
Saraswatibazar — RS 
Thupsara — S 
LABHPUR *11 P.C.O. 
Abadanga — S # 

Barah — S 
Bagdowra — S 
Bunia — E 
Bipratikuri — S 
Dwarka — S 
Gopalpur — S 
Kamadpur — 

Kuniara — ES 
Kurunnahar — S 
KururfiSa 


314 


B 1 RBHUM 


v Purbakadipur — S 
Pushulia 


Tantinapara — E 
Thiba — S 


MAHAJANPATTI SO (NDDF Rampurhat) 
MALLARPUR II P.C.O. 

Birchandrapur — SI 
Bharkata — ES 
Dabuk — ES 
Dakshingram S 
Damra — E 


Dighalgram — S 
Ganpur — S 
Ghoshgram — ES 
Kanachi — ES 
Kastogora — S 
Katigram — S 
Makdamnagar — S 
Mohula — S 
Pakhuria — S 


Sonakpur — E 
Sandhigorabazar — S 
Sekhpur — E 
Sonz — S 
Tarachua 
Turigram — SI 


MARGRAM E.D.S.O. (Phonocom) 
MAHAMMAD BAZAR E.D.S.O 
MAHAMMAD BAZAR TOWNSHIP E.D.S.C 
P.C.O. II (Phonocom) NDDF MD BAZAR 

mmIV RESWAR EDSa pco (Phonocom) 
murarai *11 P.C.O. 

Amdole — S 


Baliapalsa — S 
Bipranandigram — S 
Bangsabati — ES 
Bhimpur — ES 
Bonmohurapur — ES 
Dhananjoypur — ES 
Harwa 
Hilora — S 
Jajigram — SI 



COMMUNICATIONS 


Kahinagar — ES 
Kathia — S 
Kalahapur — E 
Malaypur — S 
Mitrapur — S . 

Mayagram — E 
Ramchandrapur — S 

NALHATI TOWNSHIP (NDDF Nalhati Birbhum) } 
NALHATI *11 P.C.O. 

Ayas — S 
Bahutali — S 
Bannior — S 
Bara — S 
Barla — S 

Barua-Gopalpur — S 
Bautia — S 

Bhabanipur-Bhatra — S 
Bhadista — E 
Bhabanandapur — E 
Bisor — ES 
Bonha — S 
Bujung — S 
Chatra — SIR 
Chhatina — S 
Debagram — E 
Duria — ES 
Haridaspur — S 
Haritoka —£ 

Jestha-Bhabanipur 
Jogai — S 
Kalitha — ES 
Kaitha — S 
Khanpur — ES 
Krishnapur — S 
Kurumgram — SI 
Kushmore — S 
Kogram — E 
Lohapur— DB. SIR 
Madhura — S 
Mustafadanga — E 
Noapara — ES 
PaikpSra — S 


t 


316 


BlRBHUM 


v- Rudranagar — S 
Shitalgram — S 
Sidhora — E 
Sonarkundu — S 
Sultanpur — E 
Tejhati — S 
Umrapur — S 
Ujipur — ES 

NIRAMOY SANATORIUM 
NIRIDANGA. II 

NISCHINTAPUR (NDDF Rampurhat' \ 
PAIKAR II 
RAJGAON E.D.S.O.R. 

RAMAKRISHNA SIKSHAPITH — 
(MUKUNDAPALLI) SO. 

RAMPURHAT *11 P.C.O. 
Balia-Mrityunjoypur — S 
Barakartick-chungri — S 
Bishnupur — SI 
Bud digram — S 
Chakpara — S 
Chandipur (Tarapith) — S 
Chandpara — S 
Dadpur — S 
Dakhalbati — E 
Debiparulia — S 
Dekhuria — S 
Dunigram — S 
Kaluha — S 
Kharun — S 
Kharbona — S 
Kusumba — S 
Narayanpur — S 
Ningha — ES 
Nonadanga — S 
Popta-Sahapur 
Sadinpur — E 
Sandhyajole — S 
Tarapur — S 

RAJNAGAR P.C.O. (Phonccom) 

Joypur — E 
Lauberia — S 


o 



COMMUNICATIONS 


Muktipur — S 
SAINTHIA *11 P.C.O. 

Bagdola — S 
Basudevpur — S 
Brahmanbahara -— E 
Chhanma — S 
Daspalsa — S 
Dahira — ES 
Derpur — S 
Ganutia — SI 
jiwe — S 
Kaleswar — E 
Kotasur •— S 
Kuliara — S 
Kundola — S 
Kunuri — S 
Mathpalsa — S 
Mohurapur — S 
Parulia — S 
Pathai — S 
Ramnagar — S 
Sahora — S 
Satpalsa — S 
Ulkunda — S 
Uchpur — E 

SA1NTH1A BAZAR (NDDF Sainthia) + 

SAN TIN IK EJ AN II P.C.O. 

Paruldanga 

SRINIKETAN II P.C.O. 

Benuria — S 
Belatisultanpur — ES 
Bergram — S 
Bheramari 
Digha — S 
Hansra — ES 
Kasba — IS 
Satire — S 

SURI BAZAR (NDDF Suri) + 

SURi COLLEGE (NDDF Suri) + 

SURI DISTRICT SCHOOL BOARD (NDDF Suri) + 
TANTK-ARA E.D.S.O. 


3J8 


BIRBHUM 


Total 

S.Os. 

— 40 

Total 

B.Os. 

— 285 

B.Os. 

with S. B. Power 

— 218 


E — Experimental P.O. (Tempy.) 

I — Insurance Power 

R — Direct communication with R.M.S. 

P.C.O. — Pubfic Call Office 

S — Sub Post Office 

ED — Extra Departmental 

NDDF — No Delivery Delivery From 

* — Telegraph on Morse System 


STATEMENT OF BRIDGES CONSTRUCTED DURING THE THREE PLANS 


COMMUNICATIONS 


319 



bridge over Kopai River Low level submersible 1959-63 3.20 On Purandarpur-Srinike- 

R.C.C. box type tan Road (Bolpur-Suri 

Road) 


APPENDIX C ( Contd .) 


320 


BIRBHUM 


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LIST OF DAK BUNGALOWS, ETC. IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT 


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Kotasur 19 j 4 2 rooms with sanitary 

On Sainthia-Kandi-Ber- latrine 

hampur Road, 8 km. from 
Sainthia R.S. 


APPENDIX D (« Contd .) 


322 


BIRBIIUM 


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Road, 3 km. from Nalhati 
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Rest House Shyambati, Santiniketan — 3 rooms Executive Engineer, Mavu- 




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CHAPTER VIIL 


ECONOMIC TRENDS AND MISCELLANEOUS 
OCCUPATIONS 

In the Census of 1961 the total population of the district is 
divided into two broad categories of workers and non-workers, 
the former comprising the following nine livelihood classes: 
(i) cultivator, (i'r) agricultural labourer, (iii) mining, quarrying, 
livestock, forestry, fishing, plantations, orchards and allied 
spheres, (iv) household industry, (v) manufacturing other than 
household industry, (vi) construction, (vii) trade and commerce, 
(viii) transport, storage and communications, and (ix) other ser¬ 
vices. The distribution of the district population according to 
this classification is given in the following table. 


COMPOSITION OF LIVELIHOOD CLASSES IN BIR15HUM DISTRICT 


Category 


NO. 

Description 

Persons 

Males 

Females 


Total No. of persons 
enumerated 

14.46,158 

7,32.922 

7,13,236 

MX 

Total Workers 

4,51,314 

3,83,793 

67,521 

1 

Cultivators 

1,97,122 

1,80,172 

16,950 

11 

Agricultural 

Labourers 

1,38,172 

1,10,647 

27,525 

III 

Mining, Quarrying, etc. 

11,998 

10,766 

1.232 

IV 

Household Industry 

21,057 

11,627 

9,430 

V 

Manufacturing other 
than Household 


- 



Industry 

12,934 

9,699 

3,235 

VI 

Construction 

2,767 

2,678 

89 

Vll 

Trade •& Commerce 

15,780 

14,635 

1,145 

VIII 

Transport, Storage 
and Communications 

4,386 

4,326 

60 

IX 

Other Services 

47,098 

39,243 

7,855 


Non-Workers 

9,94,844 

3,49,129 

6,45,715 


Of the total workers, primary sector accounts for 76.7 per cent, 
secondary sector 8.5 per cent and tertiary sector 14.8 per cent. 




328 


birbhum 


t the corresponding percentages for the State being 57.4, 18.4 and 
24.2 respectively. The statement below gives the distribution of 
1,000 workers by persons, males and females and by the liveli¬ 
hood classes for the district as compared with the corresponding 
figures for the State. 

Birbhum District West Bengal 

Persons Males Females Persons'- Males Females 


Total Workers 
1-1X 

1,000 

1,000 

1,000 

1.000 

1,000 

1,000 

I 

437 

470 

251 

385 

388 

368 

11 

306 

289 

408 

153 

144 

211 

III 

26 

28 

18 

50 

44 

90 

IV 

47 

30 

140 

42 

30 

122 

V 

29 

25 

48 

114 

124 

49 

VI 

6 

7 

1 

13 

15 

3 

VII 

35 

38 

17 

75 

83 

23 

VIII 

10 

11 

1 

34 

38 

4 

IX 

104 

102 

116 

134 

134 

130 


The following statement gives the percentages of total male and 
female workers to total persons, total males and total females 
respectively for the district and the State for total, rural and 
urban areas separately. 

Pecentages of workers to total 




Persons 

Males 

Females 


Total 

31.21 

52.36 

9.47 

Birbhum District 

Rural 

31.35 

52.70 

9.64 


Urban 

29.32 

48.21 

6.93 


Total 

33.16 

53.98 

9.43 

West Bengal 

Rural 

32.67 

13.47 

10.62 


Urban 

34.66 

55.38 

5.12 


Another table shows the distribution of 1,000 workers according 
to the nine livelihood classes in the urban and rural areas of the 
district. 

Livelihood classes 



I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

Rural 

464 

323 

28 

48 

20 

5 

23 

4 

85 

Urban 

44 

65 

8 

31 

141 

28 

210 

9* 

382 


ECONOMIC TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 329 

The proportion of agricultural labourers in this district is very v 
high, accounting for 30.6 per cent of the total workers as against 
15.3 per cent in the entire State of West Bengal. The maximum 
incidence of this category of workers is to be found in the police 
station of Mahammad Bazar with 38 per cent of the workers, 
closely followed by Dubrajpur and Ilambazar with 36 per cent, 
Murarai atid Mtiyureswar with 35 per cent and Rampurhat 
with 31 per cent. 

The proportion of workers among the Scheduled castes is 
higher than the general population of the district, accounting 
for 35.9 per cent against 31.2 per cent for the district. Although 
the same proportion of agricultural workers will be found among 
the general workers and Scheduled caste workers, the latter are 
engaged as agricultural labourers in higher proportion than the 
general workers. While among the general workers the per¬ 
centage of cultivators is 43.7 and that of agricultural labourers 
30.6, among the Scheduled castes the corresponding percentages 
are 24.9 and 49.4 respectively. The proportion of agricultural 
workers among the Scheduled castes is further higher in the rural 
sector where 26 per cent of them is engaged as cultivators and 

51.6 per cent as agricultural labourers. 

Among the Scheduled tribes, the proportion of workers is far 
more pronounced. Of a total of 1,06,860 tribals, 53,337 persons 
were enumerated as workers in the census of 1961, which works 
out roughly to 50 per cent. Among the male population the 
percentage of workers is 59.22 and among the females 40.61. A 
higher percentage of workers is to be found in the urban sector 
which claimed 58.16 per cent as against 49.81 per cent in the 
rural sector. Majority of the tribal workers, that is, nearly 87 
per cent are employed in the agricultural sector — the break-up 
being 40.36 pec cent for cultivators and 46.58 per cent for agri¬ 
cultural labourers. In the rural sector, 40.93 per cent of the 
tribals are engaged as cultivators and 46.76 per cent as agricul¬ 
tural labourers. 

Among the Santals the percentage of'cultivators is 42.24 and 
of agricultural labourers 46.42. Only 5.46 per cent of the Santal 
workers are in other services. Among the Koras 61.92 per cent 
are engaged as agricultural labourers and only 18.67 per cent 
as cultivators. Other services claimed 13.57 per cent of the 
Kora Workers. 


330 


BIRBHUM 


daSficaOon^ T he ^-agricultural workers of the district arc classified 
of non- according to their occupations in the following table which shows 
S“!! ural the relative importance of the various avocations. 


Occupational categories 

Total 

Males 

• 

Females 

Professional, technical and 


\ 


related workers 

8,259 

7,329 

930 

Administrative, executive and 

managerial workers 

1,275 

1,238 

37 

Clerical and related workers 

6,255 

6,221 

34 

Sales Workers 

14,985 

13.882 

1,103 

Farmers, fishermen, hunters. 

loggers and related workers 

13.169 

11,576 

1,593 

Miners, quarry men and 

related workers 

836 

829 

7 

Workers in transport and 

Communications 

2,647 

2,646 

1 

Craftsmen, production 
process workers and labourers 
not classified elsewhere 

53.445 

37,57?f 

15,867 

Service, sports and 

recreation workers 

13,718 

10,277 

3,441 

Workers not classified 
by occupation 

1.431 

« 

1,398 

33 

Grand Total 

1,16,020 

92,974 

23,046 


Numerical details of the various categories of non-working 
population of the district are given in the table below.'' 



ECONOMIC TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 331 


(In thousand) 


Categories of non¬ 
working population 

District total 

Rural 

total 

Urban total 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Full-time students ^ 

87.0 

34.1 

75-8 

28.8 

11.3 

5-3 

Persons hi house¬ 
hold duties 

— 

29 8 -9 

— 

280.5 

— 

18.4 

Dependents, infants 
and disabled 

246.6 

302.5 

233 -o 

283.G 

13.G 

18.9 


Retired, rentier or 
persons with inde- 


pendent means 

2-7 

2.G 

1.8 

2-5 

0.9 

0.1 

Beggars, vagrants, etc. 

3-5 

4-9 

3-3 

4.6 

0.2 

0.2 

Inmates of penal, mental 
and charitable 
institutions 

3 - 1 

2.6 

3.0 

2.6 

0.1 

_ 

Persons seeking employ¬ 
ment for the first time 

3-4 

— 

2.4 

—- 

1.0 

— 

Persons employed before, 
but now out of employ¬ 
ment and seeking work 

2.8 

0.1 

i -5 

0.1 

1.2 

— 

Total 

349 -i 

645-7 

320.8 

G02.7 

28.3 

42-9 


Prices of rice, the staple foodcrop of the district, though prices 
remained more or less steady during the period from 1788 to 
1872, registered gradual rise thereafter and became sharp and 
pronounced since 1886. The extent of increase in the prices 
of rice during the last two decades will be evident from 
the following table : 1 

(Prices per standard maund of 40 seers) 

Year 


Variety of .rice 

1788 

1872 

1886 

1908 

Finest rice 

1.56 

1.56 

2.08 

10.00 

Fine 

1.22 

1.35 

— 

8.00 

Common „ 

1.05 

1.30 

1.83 

5.00 


Price movement since 1909 showed downward tendency, when 
the average price per maund of common rice during the period 

1 L.S.S.O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers: Birblunn. Calcutta, 1910. 

p. GG^. 


332 


iiiKBiiuM 


J StOOCl Ut Rs ' 3 ' 88 ‘ Even tlle oulbrcak of the First World 
War did not have much impact on the price level, since the 
average price for the same variety of rice was only Rs. 4 46 
per maund during the war-years, 1914-18. The next decade 
following the conclusion of the war in 1918, witnessed an up¬ 
ward trend in price movement and in 1928 it rose to Rs. 7.16 
per maund and the average for the decade rose to Rs 6 41 per 
maund (for the common variety). The economic depression of 
the thirties of the present century reversed this trend and rice 
price gradually moved downwards and underwent reduction to 
the extent of about 57 per cent by 1938 as compared with the 
price level of 1928. The Second World War pushed up the 

iga? *1 . lt . rcachcd thc P cak of Rs. 32 per maund in August 
which is over 8 times higher than the average of Rs. 3.90 
a maund prevailing in the corresponding month in 1939. This 
alarming market condition was, however, short-lived and by 
December of the same year rice price came down to Rs. 12 

arouruT^h^ i ^ foll ° Wing three ^ ears Prices remained 

around this level, but since 1947, prices went on increasing in 

spite of various counteracting measures adopted by the govern¬ 
ment, which were, of course, withdrawn in 1954 in the wake of 
a bumper crop throughout the country with resultant impact, 
ough of short duration, upon the price level too. The follow¬ 
ing years are a record of progressive increase in price level which 
necessitated re-imposition of various regulatory measures by the 
government since 1964, but the phenomenon goes on unchecked. 
The two tables A and B below show the extent of rise in prices 

of common rice during the period 1947-62 and 1963-68 
respectively. ° 

TABLE A 


Price per maund. 
Years of common rice 
(in rupees) 

1947 12.58 

1948 14.92 

1949 16.31 

1950 17.53 

1951 18.78 

1952 21.83 

1953 19.16 

1954 15.91 


Price per maund 
Years of common rice 
(in rupees) 


1955 

1956 

1957 

1958 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 


17.37 

22.46 

23.87 
23.81 

20.88 



<# 

« 

ECONOMIC' TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 333 


TABLE B 



Prices per quintal 


Prices per quintal 

Years 

of common rice 

Years 

of common rice 

- 

(in rupees) 


(in rupees) 

1963 

80.14 

1966 

91.00 

1964 

70.86 

1967 

154.00 

1965 

79.00 

1968 

129.00 


The following statement on the index number of retail prices 
of selected food articles at Suri (base: November 1950=100) 
during the years 1956, 1961 and 1965 gives an idea of the price 
movements thereof during the years in question. 


INDEX NUMBER OF RETAIL PRICES OF SELECTED FOOD \RTIOT ES 

AT SIJRI CENTRE* 


Commodities 

1956 

1961 

1965 

Rice 

121 

127 

159 

Rice products 

109 

117 

158 

Wheat products 

101 

100 

113 

Mug 

87 

100 

186 

Musur 

92 

91 

178 

Kalai 

111 

117 

221 

Other pulses 

86 

112 

191 

Salt 

98 

101 

120 

Sugar 

109 

139 

150 

Potatoes 

44 

45 

59 


In 1910, O'Malley noted the prevailing system of payment, 
wholly in kind, to the agricultural labourers of this district, who 
were usually employed during the year and were given one-third 
of the produce at the time of harvest less the advances made to 
them. 1 This system was known as the Krishani system. 2 Though 
this form of employment of agricultural labourers throughout 
the year is still in vogue, yet the significant rise in agricultural 


* Source: Slate Statistical Bureau, Calcutta. 
l -2 L.S.S.O^Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers; 

p. 66, 


<» 


Birbliuni. Calcutta, 1910. 


«■ * 


« 


( 


Cost ol 

living 

index 


i 


4 

V 

334 BIRBHUM 

prices after the Second World War has partly replaced the system 
ot payment in kind by cash payment. At present, this category 
ol agricultural labourers, known as nuihindctrs, are paid cash wage 
usually of Rs. 100 annually — proportionate amount being paid 
monthly — besides two principal meals, tiffin in the form of 
Dimt dried rice) and ,?///■ (molasses) and bidi. Sometimes, instead 
of taking meals and tiffin at the residence of 1 the employer, they 
accept proportionate quantity in grains for home consumption. 

I hey also receive such perquisites as clothings thrice during 
the year. 

I he agricultural labourers who work on daily wage basis are 
known as * mnnish ’. During the decade from 1955-56 to 1965-66, 
their daily wages do not seem to have advanced much, rather a 
slight fall is registered in certain cases, as will be evident from 
the table below: 

AVERAGE DAII.Y WAGES OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS 
(L\ CASH) DURING 1 955-.56 1 AND i(((iylid- 

Ficld labourers Other agricultural Herdsmen 

labourers 

Year Hours Male Female Child Male Female Child Male Female Child 
of <1 111 v 


1955-56 

8 

1.50 

1.10 -— 

1.62 1.10 

-— 1.22 87 

.81 






/ 


1 965-66 

A ^ 

8 

1.67 

>•33 — 

>•55 >-33 

.64 .54 

.88 


At present, the male agricultural labourers usually receive at 
the time of sowing, a daily wage of Rs. 2.50 in cash along with 
one kilogramme of rice, muri (fried rice) approximately 250 grhs. 
by weight and bidi worth 12 paise, while their female counterparts 
get 50 paise less by way of cash wage, other perquisites re¬ 
maining the same. The wages both in cash and kind, however, 
fall slightly at the time of harvesting. 

The daily wages of carpenters and masons are usually between 
Rs. 5 and Rs. 6 in the district at present. 

The following table indicates how the rise in the prices 
ol food articles, as noticed earlier, caused corresponding rise 
in the general cost of living lor all expenditure groups, because 
of the former’s greater weight in domestic consumption. 


SourceDirectorate of Agriculture, West Bengal. 


v 


C 



<0 

ECONOMIC TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 


COST OF LIVING INDEX 
(Base : November 1950=100; Centre: Suri) 


Items of 
consumption 

Year 

1-100 

Expenditure levels (Rs.) 

101-200 201-350 351-700 701 and 

abo> 

• 

1956 

104.2 

102.7 

97.4 

97.9 

95.6 

Food 

1961 

112.4 

110.7 

103.8 

104.9 

102.1 

1966 

164.9 

161.0 

151.4 

152.7 

147.8 


1956 

105.3 

104.1 

100.9 

101.4 

100.2 

All 

1961 

116.0 

115.1 

110.9 

112.5 

110.6 

combined 

1966 

158.8 

153.4 

145.1 

144.9 

138.2 


The statement in Appendix B compiled from the Re-survey 
report on the village Sahajapur under the P.S. Bolpur of this 
district published by the Agro-E f onomic Research Centre, 
Santiniketan gives a fair idea of the trend of family budgets 
in rural areas over the period 1955-56 and 1960-61. The state¬ 
ment gives relevant information about per capita annual ex¬ 
penditures on different items of consumption, by the different 
occupation groups as classified by the 1951 Census. It wi e 
evident from the table that there has been a rise in the per 
capita annual expenditure among all the occupational groups, 
but the rise in terms of real expenditure (actual expenditure 
deflated by price-index) has been more pronounced only among 
the cultivators of land wholly and mainly owned and rent¬ 
receiving groups where per capita real income (Appendix A) has 
also risen substantially during the period. Yet in their case the 
increase in expenditure has been proportionately less than the 
increase in income. Among all other groups, per capita real 
expenditure has declined. It will be further noticed that “the 
increase/decrease per capita real income has affected the ex¬ 
penditure on non-food items. That is, the occupational groups 
which have shown increases in the per capita real income have 
spent a greater amount of the increased income on non-food items, 
and the occupational groups which have shown decreases in the 
per capita real income have curtailed their expenditure on non¬ 
food items rather than food items.” 1 


Rural 

family 

budgets 


Madan Gopal Ghosh—Studies in Rural Change, Sahajapur: West 
Rcngrf. Agro-Economic Research Centre, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, 

PP 58-59. fil > 65 


336 


BIRBHUM 


Urban 

family 

budgets 


l evels of 
living 


j statemen t in the following table, prepared by the State 

Statistical Bureau, West Bengal, shows the trend of family 
budgets in Suri town during the period 1950-51 to 1960-61. 


percentage expenditure on difeerent groups of items of 

CONSUMPTION BY DIFFERENT EXPENDITURE LEVELS 1 


Centre : Suri 

, Monthly Expenditure levels (in rupees) 

items of ___' 


consumption Year 

1-100 

101-200 201-350 

351-700 

701 and 







above 

Food 

1950-51 

70.01 

63.53 

56.57 

48.35 

38.96 

1955-56 

68.44 

58.89 

56.66 

47.23 

39.12 


1960-61 

70.90 

62.48 

53.98 

50.57 

49.07 

Clothing 

1950-51 

5.3 f 

5.72 

5.39 

5.48 

4.77 

1955-56 

6.94 

7.75 

8.11 

7.91 

7.80 


1960-61 

6.81 

6.81 

7.07 

7.12 

8.30 

Fuel & 

1950-51 

6.47 

4.84 

4.51 

3.14 

3.73 

Light 

1955-56 

7.10 

5.07 

5.19 

4.62 

3.70 

1960-61 

5.93 

5.36 

5.28 

4.07 

2.98 

Housing 

1950-51 

2.07 

4.04 

3.74 

3.28 

5.70 

1955-56 

2.77 

5.41 

6.19 

7.75 

7.30 


1960-61 

3.02 

5.83 

4.40 

2.60 

11.47 

Miscel¬ 

1950-51 

16.14 

21.87 

29.79 

39.75 

46.84 

laneous 

1955-56 

14.75 

22.88 

24.85 

32.89 

42.08. 


1960-61 

13.34 

19.52 

29.27 

35.64 

28.18 


1950-51 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Total 

1955-56 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 


1960-61 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 


The Agro-Economic Research Centre, Visva-Bharati, Santi- 
niketan, conducted socio-economic survey on the village of 
Sahajapur under P.S. Bolpur of this district first in 1956 and 
then in 1961 for re-survey. The village is located at a distance 
ol 8 km. Irom the Bolpur town. Its findings present an interesting 
study of the changes taking place in the economy of the village 

1 Source:u State Statistical Bureau, West Bengal. 



ECONOMIC TRENDS & 


MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 337 


over the period of 5 years. As will be evident from the table 
in Appendix A of this chapter, per capita income of the village 
has registered an increase of about 42 per cent during the 
period. Among the agricultural classes, the highest increase to 
the tune of 62 per cent has been recorded by the cultivators of 
land wholly or mainly owned, followed by 43 per cent in respect 
of the rent-receiving group, 22 per cent in respect of the cultiva¬ 
tors of land wholly or mainly unowned and 15 per cent in 
respect of the agricultural labourers. Among the non-agricultural 
classes, the highest increase in the per capita income, to the ex¬ 
tent of 111 per cent, has been recorded by the trading group. 
Other occupation groups, namely, production other than cultiva¬ 
tion and services record small increases of only 6 and 15 per cents 
respectively in the per capita income. In terms of real income 
(actual income deflated by consumer price index numbers), the 
village records an increase in per capita real income by 21 per 
cent. Trading group accounted for the highest increase in the 
per capita real income which was 77 per cent, while cultivators 
of land wholly or mainly owned, rent-receivers and cultivators 
of land wholly or mainly unowned showed increases of 41, 24 
and 5 per cents respectively. In respect of all other groups 
including agricultural labour there is a decrease of real income 
and a fall in their standard of living. 

The District Employment Exchange at Suri with jurisdiction 
over the whole district started functioning on and from 17 May 
1962. Prior to that date, the district was served by the sub¬ 
regional Employment Exchange at Asansol. The following table 
(valid for 1968) gives figures of registrations, placements, vacancies 
notified, live-register at the close of the year and the average 
number of employers using the Exchange per month. 1 


Performance of the Employment Exchange at Sari during 1968 

Monthly 





Live- 

average 




register 

No. of 

No. of 

No. of 


at ther end 

employers 

registra- 

place¬ 

Vacancies 

of Decem¬ 

using the 

Year tions 

ments 

notified 

ber 1968 

Exchange 

1968 5,854 

1,928 

2,051 

10,506 

5.7 

- 3 * 

1 Source: Directorate 

of National 

Employment 

Service, West Bengal. 


Sahajapur 

village 

survey 


Employment 

Employment 

Exchange 


338 


BIRBHUM 




Community 

Development 


Learned 

Professions 


Teachers 


Physicians 


At present, the Exchange is experiencing shortage of veterinary 
assistant surgeons, lecturers in English, Chemistry, Biology, 
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, trained secondary school 
teachers, draftsmen, tracers, mechanics, while excess supply 
is observed amongst passed trainees from the Industrial Training 
Institute, unskilled workers, bicli -makers and diploma-holders in 
Engineering subjects. 

To relieve congestion in crowded occupations, the Exchange 
keeps the registrants informed through group discussions and 
advises them to equip themselves for absorption in new callings. 
It arranges career tasks in schools, provides vocational guidance, 
assists in the placement of candidates in training centres and 
apprentices’ jobs and disseminates local information on occupa¬ 
tions, educational courses and training facilities, etc. 

As part of the Five-Years Plans, the community development 
programme aiming at resuscitation of the socio-economic life of 
the rural people was first launched in this district in October 1962 
with the inauguration of Sainthia and Mahammad Bazar Deve¬ 
lopment Blocks. The programme now covers the entire district 
with 19 Blocks, the particulars of which are given in Appendices C 
and D. 

According to the information furnished by the Director of 
Public Instructions, West Bengal, there were a total of 7,321 
teachers, including 390 females in the district in 1964-65 dis¬ 
tributed among the various educational institutions as follows. 
Colleges (general, vocational and special) account for 231 per¬ 
sons which include 9 females ; Higher Secondary, High, Junior 
High, Senior Basic, Primary & Junior Basic and Nursery schools 
6,492 persons including 332 females ; vocational schools 514 per- ~ 
sons including 49 females and special institutions like Tols, 
Madrasahs, etc. 84 persons. Besides these, the Visva-Bharati 
University employs a good number of teachers, particulars about 
whom are given in the Appendix to Chapter XIII. The teachers 
have their respective associations to look after their interests. 

The Census of 1961 enumerated a total of 621 doctors 
(including 7 females) in the district, of whom allopathic physicians 
and surgeons numbered 205 including 4 females. The number 
of allopathic physicians and surgeons practising in urban areas 
was 75 which included all the 4 lady doctors. The rest were 
in rural areas. Physicians of other categories numbered 94 and 
unclassified ones 178 (including 2 females). The urban-rural 
distribution of these 272 physicians shows that they were* mostly 


ECONOMIC TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 339 


to be found in the rural areas which claimed 216 physicians and 
the remaining 60 being in urban areas. 

According to the same source, the number of persons engaged 
in legal profession was 157 (including 1 female), of whom legal 
practitioners and advisers make a total of 135 persons including 
the lady'in the field. 

The Census of 1951, returned 288 persons (including 2 females) 
as architects, engineers and surveyors in this district, of whom 
civil engineers (including overseers) alone numbered 188. The 
rest were unclassified. 

The same source enumerated 796 persons (including 38 females) 
as barbers, hairdressers, beauticians and related workers in the 
district, of them 148 persons were in urban areas and the remain¬ 
ing 648 persons worked in rural areas. In the second half of 
1968, their charges for a hair-cut and a shave in a saloon in 
urban areas of Suri were usually 50 paise and 20 paise res¬ 
pectively, the corresponding rates in rural areas around Suri 
being 31 paise and 12 paise respectively. Pavement barbers in 
Suri town charge 37 paise for a hair-cut and 15 paise for a 
shave while in the rural periphery of Suri town the rates being 
25 paise and 10 paise respectively. Elsewhere in the district, 
the charges for the respective job vary between the minimum 
rates mentioned above. The daily wage of barbers employed 
in saloon is usually Rs. 3 or 60 per cent of their daily income. 
They have no association in the district. 1 

I he same source put the total number of tailors, cutters, 
furriers and related workers in the district at 1,215, including 
72 females. Their business is either self-managed or carried on 
partnership basis. In the latter half of 1968, tailoring charge 
for a cotton shirt varied between Rs. 1.50 and Rs. 2, for a 
punjabi between Rs. 1.50 and Rs. 2.50, for a blouse between 75 
paise and Rs. 1.50 and for a cotton suit usually Rs. 15. The 
business of the tailors is either self-managed or run on partner¬ 
ship basis. The monthly income of the former averages Rs. 150. 
There is no association of tailors in the district. 2 

In the same source 3 , 292 persons including 52 females were 
recorded as launderers, clelaners and pressers jin the district. 
They were mostly scattered in the rural aeas which claimed as 
many as 208 persons. The washermen’s usual charges vary 


* 


Lawyers 


Engineers 


Miscellaneous 

Occupations 


Barbers 


Tailors 


Washermen 


1 - 3 Source: District Magistrate, Birbhum. 


340 


BIRBHUM 


Domestic 

servants 


from 15 to 20 paise per piece and from Rs. 12 to Rs. 14 per 
100 articles. They have no association in the district. 

The number of persons engaged in the district as house¬ 
keepers, cooks, maids, etc. was 9,206 in 1961, of whom 3,135 
were females. The wages of different categories of domestic 
servants in Sadar and Rampurhat subdivisions as obtaining in 
the second half of 1968 are given in the table below which will 
show that the cooks’ wage rates were lower in Rampurhat sub¬ 
division than in Sadar subdivision. 


Artists, 

Writers, 

Musicians 


Categories of (Monthly wage in Rs.) 

domestic Male Female 


servants 

Suri 

Rampurhat 

Suri 

Rampurhat 

Servant 

(Part-time 
with food) 


5 

4.50 

2.50 

(Part-time 
without food) 

10-15 

15 

6-8 

15 

(Full-time 
with food) 

12-20 

20 

10-15 

20 

(Full-time 
without food) 

50-60 

50 

40-45 

50 

Cook 

(Part-time 
with food) 

10 

4 

8 

2.50 

(Part-time 
without food) 

20-30 

8 

25 

6 

(Full-time 
with food) 

30 

10 

15 

6 

(Full-time 
without food) 

75-100 

25 

50-60 

20 


Artists, writers, musicians and related workers numbered 155, 
including 4 females, in 1961, of whom musicians and allied cate¬ 
gory of workers alone were 88 including 2 females. 


APPENDIX A 


ECONOMlfc TRENDS & MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS 341 


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Chapter IX 

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 

Introductory It is unfortunate that all traces of the Hindu system of district 

administration has been lost in Bengal. Only a faint idea of the 
type of the administration and its pattern in Hindu times is 
possible from references to the public offices and officers in 
copper plate grants. The administrative unite into which the 
territory was divided during the Gupta rule were Bhukti, Vishaya, 
Mandala, VTthi and Grama. The officer in charge of the Bhukti 
was called the Uparika and under him were several Vishayas 
each under a Kumaramatya who may be taken as the proto¬ 
type of the present day District Officer. The Kumaramatya, or 
Ayuktaka as he was sometimes designated, had a body of four 
advisers consisting of (i) the Nagara Sreshtin or the chief of the 
guild of bankers, (ii) Sarthavaha or the chief of the merchants, 
(iii) Prathama Kulika or the chief artisan, and (iv) Prathama 
Kayastha or the Secretary of the Board . 1 The existence of such 
a Board seems to indicate that the administration was carried 
out according to the wishes of the people represented in this 
Board. The Khalimpur copper plate 2 of Dharmapfila gives a 
long list of public officers but the functions of many of them 
are not clear. It is probable that the Advisory Board of the 
Gupta times was done away with and only the Prathama 
Kayastha survived under the appellation of Jyeshtha Kayastha. 
Still, the formality of a government by popular wish was main¬ 
tained and in the land grant the king solicits the consent of the 
people towards making of the grant. Of the various officers 
mentioned in the grant, Dandapasika, Dandika and Dandasakti _ 
appear to have been police officers while Chauroddharanika was 
either a high ranking police officer or one collecting police tax. 
The Dasagramika was an officer in charge of ten villages and the 
gramika was the head-man of the village. The administrative 
divisions, Bhukti, Vishaya, Mandala and Grama as obtained in 
the Gupta times were continued. The formality of popular con¬ 
sent in the royal grant was done away with during the- reign of 



1 Damodarpur Copper plate of Kumara Gupta I, Epigraphia Indica 
Vol. XV, p. 130. 

2 Epigraphia Indica Vol. IV, p. 243. 


v 




t 


c 


o 




s 


GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


347 


Devapala whose Monghyr Copper plate 1 does not make this 
solicitation. 

We possess but scanty information of the administrative system 
of the Alghan rulers. From literary sources, it is known that 
the Afghan rulers posted several Kazis in different parts of the 
territory and tliese functioned as Judge, Magistrate and Police 
Chief all rolled mto one. 

The Mughal administration in Bengal had never taken a firm 
root. Bengal was not fully subjugated till the reign of Jehangir. 
The rebellion of Prince Khurram during the latter part of the 
reign of Jehangir and the fratricidal war when Shahjehan was on 
his death-bed threw the Bengal administration into confusion and 
the powerful zemindars of Bengal wielded the real administrative 
powers. The police administration remained under these zemin¬ 
dars who also dispensed summary justice in Civil and Criminal 
cases. The Mughal Faujdar was essentially a military officer 
though he functioned as deputy governor and lent his forces for 
the collection of revenue if necessity arose. There were two 
kinds ol police during the Mughal days. The zemindar had his 
own police appointed and paid by him while the Faujdar had a 
State police organisation. There were thanas at each Pergana 
head quarters under thanadars supervised by sikdars. 

The jurisprudence followed was the Quranic laws as inter- 
pieted in the Sunna and the Hadith. The criminal law adminis¬ 
tered for both Flindus and Muslims was the Islamic law. In the 
case of the Hindus the Civil law was their own personal law. 

The criminal law administered by the Kazis, appointed by the 
State and posted at the Provincial and Pergana head-quarters, 
was the Planafite system. 7 he Crimes were divided into three 
broad categories (i) crimes against God, (ii) crimes against the 
State and (iii) crimes against private individuals. The first cate¬ 
gory included apostacy, adultery, drinking wine, theft, high-way 
robbery, and ‘robbery with murder. Apostacy, adultery and 
robbery with murder were punishable with death. Theft and 
robbery were punishable with amputation of limbs. Offences like 
murder and severe bodily injury were, however, only personal 
offences and the next of kin of the dea'd man or the injured had 
the right of retaliation or pardon. Thus, a married woman could 


Corner n.:f q T,u Vo1 ' XXI * PP* * 54 * 57 - While the Khalimpur 
Copper plate of Dharmapala mentions ‘Matam astu bhavatam’ fmav 
there be your consent to this), the Monghyr Copper plate of Devapala 
merely mentions vtditam astu bhavatam’ (may this be known to you) 


* 


v 


w 


Mughal 

Administration 


V 


Evolution of 
district 

administration 
under the 
East India 
Company 


348 BIRBHUM 

get her husband murdered by a paramour and then pardon the 
paramour and marry him. 

At the time of the acquisition of the Dewany by the East 
India Company in 1765, Birbhum district was part of a much 
larger unit, viz., the Birbhum zemindary with an area of 3,858 
square miles which included not only the present area of Birbhum 
district but also the whole of Deoghar sub-division and certain 
other portions of the Santal Perganas District of Bihar. For four 
years from 1765 to 1769, the East India Company did not take 
any step to give an administration to the Dewany provinces. On 
24 May 1769, Richard Becher, the Resident at the Durbar of the 
Nawab at Murshidabad, wrote to the Governor Harry Verelst 
about the evils of the system of collecting revenue by Aumils 
and suggested that officers of the Company be posted at each 
zemindary to supervise. 1 Verelst accepted the idea and in 1769 
young officers of the Company were posted as Supravisors. 

The failure of the East India Company to make satisfactory 
collection of revenue during the first four years of the Dewany 
convinced the sober sections of the Company’s servants that if 
they were to collect the revenue successfully, they must give 
protection and good government to the people. Verelst wrote, 
“The people give us the labour of their hands, and in return 
we owe them our protection. Common prudence as well as the 
laws of society, require that those obligations are reciprocal, or 
the tie must soon be resolved ; for the foremost security of 
every government is the affection of the people”. 2 Verelst, there¬ 
fore, attempted to give the government by the appointment of 
Supravisors. The instructions given to the Supravisors required 
them to enforce justice where the law demanded and in matters 
of disputes over property to try the method of arbitration. They 
were also required to extirpate corruption in the officials of the 
Mughal administration, abolish arbitrary fines and call upon the 
local officials to produce their credentials and re’move usurpers 
of judicial authority. The Supravisors were very junior officers 
of the Company and not being trained in matters of administra¬ 
tion they generally produced little impression. But the appoint¬ 
ment of the Supravisors marks the beginning of the District 
Administration. 

In 1772, after Warren Hastings became the Governor, the 


1 W. K Eirminger—Introduction to the Fifth Report (1917), pp. clxxvi-vii, 
3 H. Verelst—A view of the rise, progress and present state of the 
English Government in Bengal, London, 1772, Appendix, p. i£o. 



GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


349 


Supravisors were designated as Collectors. A mofussil Dewany 
and Faujdari Adalat were created in each district. The Collector 
was to preside over the Dewany Adalat and the Faujdari Adalat 
was presided over by the Kazi of the district with two Maulavis 
to assist. This court exercised jurisdiction in all cases of murder, 
assault, frays, quarrels, adultery and breaches of the peace. The 
Collector was to supervise the proceedings of this court and to 
ensure that all necessary evidence was secured and decisions based 
on proper evidence received in open sittings of the court. The Collec¬ 
tors were further to keep a locked box in the Katchary, accessible to 
the public where any aggrieved person could drop a petition which 
received the attention of the Collector on the next Katchary day. 
Hastings, in creating these improvements in the district adminis¬ 
tration, was following up the views of Verelst but the Board of 
Directors of the East India Company in England were blind to 
these progressive views. To them profit making was the only 
purpose the Company stood for and they directed in 1773 that the 
Collectors (Supravisors) be forthwith withdrawn. The Collectors 
were accordingly withdrawn from the early part of 1774. 

The Mughal government depended mainly on the zemindars 
for the administration of the rural areas, while the Faujdari 
thanadars and sikdars maintained the authority of the Mughal 
emperor. After 1765, the pomp and power of the Mughal emperor 
had vanished and the Nawab Nazim of Bengal became a puppet 
of the East India Company. The power and prestige of the 
zemindars was rudely shaken by the exacting fiscal policy of the 
East India Company. Hastings tried to supplant the authority 
of the Company in the rural administration by creating the posts 
of Faujdars at thirteen selected places. Irr January 1776, 
Muhammed Reza Khan, now made Naib Nazim, devised a new 
plan for criminal administration. The criminal courts were re¬ 
constituted and one daroga and four Naib Kazis were appointed 
for each district court. In re-organising the police administration, 
Reza Khan provided a Faujdari thana at the chief town of each 
district. The Faujdar under the new plan was to act as the chief 
police officer, responsible as before, for the maintenance of law 
and order including the apprehension of criminals and local 
investigation into offences of which he sent a report to the criminal 
court. A prison was attached to each Faujdari thana as well 
as to each criminal court. The Faujdar’s establishment consisted 
of 34 persons of which only 20 were sepoys. With such meagre 
force <ihe Faujdar could ill perfom the task entrusted to him. 



350 


BTRBHUM 


Reza Khan had organised the police on erstwhile Mughal pattern. 
But conditions had changed. The zemindari police which acted 
as a powerful and potent ancillary to the Faujdari police had 
completely broken down in most places due to the attrition of 
the power of the zemindars as a result of the fiscal policy of 
the Company. The support that Reza Khan expected from the 
zemindars was not obtained and the experiment failed. 

The Faujdars were abolished from 1781 and the Company’s 
covenanted servants who had been judges of the Dewany Adalat 
were invested with the powers of magistrates and placed incharge 
of the police organisation. The Judge-Magistrate’s police organisa¬ 
tion consisted of the Nazir, a jail officer, a few clerks and between 
25 to 150 barkandazes usually armed with lathis but occasionally 
with match-locks. A proclamation was issued directing the 
zemindars to co-operate with their police force. The function 
of the Judge-Magistrate was to apprehend the criminals and 
commit them to the Faujdari Adalat which continued to function 
under the supervision of the Naib Nazim and the Nizamat Adalat 
at Murshidabad. 

The frequent changes and half-hearted policies show an 
indecision and hesitancy in the management of affairs in India 
by the East India Company. The cause is two-fold. Firstly, a 
company of merchants under a Board of Directors in England 
became suddenly saddled with the responsibility of administering 
a large territory whose successful administration required fixed 
political aims and a definite administrative policy. The Directors 
being only interested in profits could not take a broad view of 
the administration for fear of losing the profits. Secondly, what 
the Company acquired by the Sanad of the Dewany was an office, 
not even property and far less Sovereignty. The Regulating 
Act of the British Parliament of 1773 did not accept the 
sovereignty of the Company nor did it avow the sovereignty of 
the British Crown. The policy of obscurity ingenuously invented 
by Clive still held the political thought in England and the 
British Parliament thought it expedient to leave the character of 
the Company undefined so that “the English might treat the 
Princes in whose name they governed as realities or non-entities, 
just as might be more convenient”. 1 The reforms of Hastings 
sufferred under these two limitations and he therefore tried to 
improve the administration within the frame-work of the Mughal 


1 Hansard, L Third series, 10th July 1833, Vol. 19. p. 508. 



GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


351 


system and failed because the main prop of the Mughal adminis¬ 
tration, namely the zemindars had been ruined by the East India 
Company’s fiscal policy. It remained for Cornwallis to make 
a complete departure from the past and forge ahead a new 
administration. 

In the mean time, the administration of Birbhum suffered 
badly. Originally, a Supravisor had been posted in Birbhum. 
But later for reasons of economy Birbhum was administered 
from Murshidabad till 1787. Whatever benifits were derived 
by other districts from the reforms of Hastings hardly percolated 
to Birbhum. But the district or at least a part of it got an 
administration in another unofficial manner. John Cheap, the 
first Commercial Resident of the Company, resided at Surul, 
about 20 miles from Suri from about 1782. Gradually, he 
secured so much influence over the local people that he held an 
un-official court at his residence and to his justice and arbitra¬ 
tion the people readily submitted. In such matters, the law 
gave him no power, but in the absence of efficient courts, public 
opinion had accorded jurisdiction to any influential person who 
chose to assume it, and the Commercial Resident’s decisions 
were speedy, inexpensive and usually just. 

The administration of Birbhum from Murshidabad had failed. 

In 1785, the Collector of Murshidabad reported that he was 
unable to protect Birbhum from the ravages of armed bands of 
bandits and asked for force. In 1786, G. R. Foley was deputed 
to Birbhum with orders to support the Raja of Birbhum against 
the marauders. Next year, Cornwallis determined to unite 
Birbhum and Vishnupur into a compact district and in March 
1787 a notification was issued ih the Calcutta Gazette to the effect 
that Pye was confirmed Collector of Bishenpore in addition to 
Birbhum heretofore superintended by G. R. Foley. Pye left 
the district towards the end of 1787 and was succeeded by 
Sherburne who "was removed towards the close of 1788 and 
Christopher Keating was appointed the Collector. It was Keating 
who ushered the Cornwallis reforms and a stable organised 
administration in the district. 

Though the British Parliament in the Regulating Act did not • 
accept the sovereignty of the Company or avow the sovereignty 
of the British Crown, many of the acts of Cornwallis would show 
that he assumed a sovereignty. The office of the Naib Nazim 
hitherto held by Muhammed Reza Khan was abolished and the 
Nizamat* Adalat transferred to Calcutta, to be presided over by 


John Cheap’s 

un-official 

court 


Cornwallis 
and his 
reforms 



352 


BIRBHUM 


the Governor-General and members of the Supreme Council 
assisted by the Chief Kazi and two Muftis to declare the law on 
the subject. The Islamic law was changed and many of the 
heinous offences which were personal offences in that law were 
made offences against the State. The British Common Law 
principle of King’s peace was promulgated. Amputation of 
limbs sanctioned by the Islamic law was substituted by hard 
labour or fine and imprisonment. Under the Islamic law the 
evidence of non-Muslims were inadmissible as evidence in the 
criminal trials of Muslims. Cornwallis removed the anomaly in 
the law. These changes were first made by executive orders in 
1790 and later embodied in Regulation IX of 1793. 

The post of the darogas of the criminal courts were abolished 
and four criminal Courts of Circuit were created to hold two 
six monthly circuits in each district in a year. The Judge- 
Magistrates were to produce the criminal before the Circuit Courts 
which tried the cases and after determining the case sent the 
records to the Nizamat Adalat in Calcutta for pronouncement 
of the sentence. The British born subjects were, however, not 
amenable, to the jurisdiction of this Court. They were triable 
only by the Supreme Court. 

The police reforms of Cornwallis, firstly, did away with the 
Zemindari police organisation, and secondly, it divided the districts 
into compact areas of about 20 to 30 square miles and established 
a thana in each such area with a daroga, a muharrir, a jamadar 
and ten barkandazes all in Government’s pay. These thanas were 
under the direct supervision of the Judge-Magistrate of the district. 
The village chaukidar though still appointed by the zemindar was 
made subject to the order of the darogas. 1 

The Civil and Revenue suits jurisdiction of the Collector was 
taken away and vested in the Zilla Judge. 2 3 The Collector, how¬ 
ever, continued to try petty criminal cases punishable with cor¬ 
poral punishment of thirty rattans or imprisonment up to thirty 
days. 1 

Cornwallis laid the foundation of the British system of adminis¬ 
tration in India. The system introduced by him gradually deve¬ 
loped into the elaborate system of district administration by 
about 1870. This is the system which is still followed except for 


1 Regulation XXII of 1793. 

2 Regulation II of 1793. 

3 Regulation IX of 1793. 





• GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 353 

minor changes. The developments since the time of Cornwallis 
may be briefly noted. 

The four Courts of Circuit could not dispose of the cases with 
sufficient expedition and prisoners languished in jails without 
trial for more than a year. The Board of Revenue was also 
finding it difficult to dispose of all matters concerning revenue 
referred from the districts. Accordingly, in 1829, the posts of 
Commissioners of Revenue and Circuit 1 were created and the 
powers and functions of the Court of Circuit were delegated to 
these Commissioners. But as Revenue work began to suffer, the 
powers and functions of the Circuit Courts were made over to the 
Zilla Judge in 1831. 2 This is the beginning of the office of the 
Sessions Judge. In the mean time, considerations of expedition 
of trial in criminal cases led to the increase in the powers of the 
Magistrates and those who were covenanted servants of the Com¬ 
pany were authorised to try offences of burglary, theft, receiving 
stolen property, and escaping from custody and were empowered 
to inflict punishment of imprisonment up to two years and thirty 
rattans as corporal punishment. 3 European Assistant Magistrates 
were empowered to try some of the cases and inflict punishment 
up to six months’ imprisonment and corporal punishment up to 
thirty rattans. 4 5 Indians had been appointed Deputy Collectors 
mainly for revenue work. 3 These Indian Deputy Collectors were 
empowered to try petty cases and inflict sentences up to one 
month’s imprisonment and thirty rattans as corporal punishment. 
The Collectors had remained divested of judicial powers since 
the time of Cornwallis. Judicial criminal powers were restored 
to them by Dalhousie in 1854. 6 Thus emerged the District Magis¬ 
trate and Collector who in later years became the pivot of the 
district administration. 

Though the superintendence of the police was vested in the 
Judge-Magistrates, a Superintendent of Police for Calcutta, Dacca 
and Murshidabad divisions was appointed in 1808. 7 This office 
was abolished when the Commissioners of Revenue were given 
powers of the superintendence of the Police. A separate 


1 Regulation I of 1829. 

2 Regulation VII of 1831. 

3 Regulation XII of 1818 and Regulation VIII of 1830 

* Regulation III of 1821 and Regulation IV of 1822. 

5 Regulation IX of 1833. 

11 Despatch by Dalhousie dated 24th April 1854. 

7 Regulation X of 1808. 

* 3 


Criminal 

trials 


354 


BJRBHUM 


O 


Superintendent of Police for each district was appointed in 1861 
on the recommendation of the Police Commission in 1860. 

The general administration of the district is in charge of the 
District Magistrate and Collector who is under the administrative 
control of the Commissioner of the Burdwan Division whose Head 
Quarters is at Chinsurah. Subject to the control and supervision 
of the District Magistrate, the general administration of the only 
outlying sub-division of the district, Rampurhat, is in charge of 
the Sub-Divisional Officer. The Head Quarters of the district 
is at Suri where the District Magistrate and Collector is stationed. 
The District Magistrate and Collector, who belongs to the Indian 
Administrative Service, is assisted by an Additional District 
Magistrate who is in charge of the Estates Acquisition and Revenue 
branches of the office of the Collector and is also in charge of the 
excise department. There is a Superintendent of Excise in direct 
charge of the Excise Administration. There are three Deputy 
Magistrates and Deputy Collectors at the Sadar station of whom 
one is the Sadar Sub Divisional Officer, one is the Executive 
Officer of the Zilla Parishad and the third is the District Panchayat 
Officer and Special Officer, Planning and Development. Another 
Deputy Collector is posted at Bolpur as Additional Sub Divisional 
Officer with effect from 6 December 1971. Of the five Sub Deputy 
Magistrates and Sub Deputy Collectors one is Special Officer 
for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Welfare, another is 
Special Land Acquisition Officer and the remaining three work 
as Magistrates and perform other miscellaneous work. There are 
six Temporary Sub Deputy Collectors of whom one is stationed 
at Bolpur as Administrator of the Bolpur Municipality; one is the 
District Compensation Officer and another is Additional Land 
Acquisition Officer. The remaining three perform miscellaneous 
duties of the District Office. At Rampurhat, there are two Deputy 
Magistrates and Deputy Collectors of whom one^ is in charge of 
the sub division and the other assists him in case work. There 
is a Munsif-Magistrate. There is one Sub Deputy Magistrate and 
Sub Deputy Collector for criminal case work and a Temporary 
Sub Deputy Collector for miscellaneous work.- The police 
administration in the district is under a Superintendent of Police 
stationed at Suri belonging to the Indian Police Service cadre. 
He is assisted by one Additional Superintendent of Police and two 
Deputy Superintendents of Police. One of the Deputy Superinten¬ 
dents is in charge of discipline and training and the other is in 
charge of the Head quarters office and generally assists the 


GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


355 


Superintendent in the administration. At Rampurhat, there is one 
Deputy Superintendent of Police as the Sub Divisional Police 
Officer. He is under the Superintendent of Police. 

There are nineteen Community Development Blocks* in the 
district each under a Block Development Officer. These officers 
usually-belong to the cadre of Sub Deputy Collectors though quite 
a number of officers of the Subordinate Agricultural Service, 
C lass I have been appointed to these posts. Each Block has its 
complement of Extension Officers of whom the Agricultural 
Extension Officer, the Inspector of Co-operation Societies, the 
Veterinary Assistant Surgeon are Gazetted Officers while the 
Industries Extension Officer, the Extension Officer for Panchayats, 
the Social Education Officer and the Lady Social Education Officer, 
the Fishery Extension Officer, the Sub Assistant Engineer and the 
Assistant Agricultural Extension Officers are non-Gazetted. 
Generally, each block has two Gram Sevikas, though some have 
one. 

The Estates Acquistion and Land Reforms organisation under 
the Collector has two Sub Divisional Land Reforms Officers, one 
posted at Suri and the other posted at Rampurhat. Besides, there 
are fourteen Junior Land Reforms Officers and fourteen Circle 
Inspectors, one each for each thana in the district. 

There is one District Compensation Officer and two Sub Divi¬ 
sional Compensation Officers, one for the Sadar Sub Division 
posted at Suri and the other for the Rampurhat Sub Division 
posted at Rampurhat. There are also two Assistant Compensation 
Officers. 

The Principal Agricultural Officer stationed at Suri looks after 
agricultural development works in the district.. He is technically 
assisted by 1 District Agronomist (crops), 1 District Agronomist 
(seeds & fertilisers), 1 District Plant Protection Officer, 1 District 
Training Officer, 1 Subject Matter Specialist, 6 Officers in the 
Subordinate Agricultural Service (Class I) and 4 Farm Managers. 
Besides, he has under him an Assistant Farm Manager, 16 persons 
in the Subordinate Agricultural Service (class III) and 4 Sub 
Assistant Engineers and Surveyors. 

The Assistant Engineer (Agri.-Irrigation) at Suri is responsible 
for the implementation of deep tubewell irrigation schemes. He 
has under him 2 Sub Assistant Engineers, 2 Surveyors, 2 Elec¬ 
tricians, 1 Mechanic and 3 Work Assistants. 

For ^ list of the Community Development Blocks and th^ir head¬ 
quarters please see Appendix at the end of this Chapter. # 


Community 

Development 

Blocks 


Estates 
Acquisition 
and Land 
Reforms 


Compensation 


I 


Other 

Departments 

Agriculture 


Agricultural 

Engineering 


356 


BIRBHUM 


Agricultural 

Marketing 


Agricultural 
I ncome 
Tax 


Animal 
Husbandry 
and Veterinary 


Cottage and 
Small Scale 
Industries 


The Assistant Engineer (Agri.-Mechanical) at Suri looks after 
the installation and maintenance of engines and pumps and up¬ 
keep of thana farm machinery. He has under him 1 Sub Assis¬ 
tant Engineer, 1 Surveyor, 1 L.R.O.CM and 1 Deputed OCM. 

The District Agricultural Marketing Officer stationed at Suri 
looks after the agricultural marketing matters in general: As a 
member in different tender committees, he has to advise about 
the market price of agricultural commodities for purchase and 
disposal by the government. He has also to function as a Director 
of different cooperative marketing societies and to supervise the 
six cold storages and to prepare the marketing survey reports as 
outlined by the State and Central Governments on different com¬ 
modities. He has under him 2 Subdivisional Agricultural Market¬ 
ing Officers and 7 Market Reporters. 

For the purpose of the Bengal Agricultural Income Tax Act, 
1944, there is no establishment exclusively for the district of 
Birbhum, which is within the jurisdiction of the Burdwan Range, 
the Agricultural Income Tax Office being located at Burdwan 
Town. 

The District Veterinary Officer stationed at Suri is in charge 
of the animal husbandry and veterinary administration in the 
district. The Veterinary Inspector under him is the officer-in¬ 
charge of the State Veterinary Hospital at Suri and the District 
Veterinary Pathologist is also attached to the State Veterinary 
Hospital at Suri. Besides, there are 15 Stationary Veterinary 
Assistant Surgeons. 

The District Livestock Officer at Suri is responsible for live¬ 
stock administration in the district. He has under him 2 Assistant 
Livestock Officers, one at Suri and the other at Bolpur. Besides, 
there are 1 Extension Officer and 12 Stockmen. 

The District Industrial Officer stationed at Suri looks after the 
developmental activities of Cottage and Small-scale Industries. He 
has also to maintain liaison with other Government and non- 
Government institutions. He has under him a Superintendent to 
supervise the Model Blacksmithy Workshop. An Extension 
Officer assists the District Industrial Officer in the- implementa¬ 
tion of the community development programmes including 
industrial cooperatives. There are also 5 Instructors to impart 
training in the Training Centre. 

The Industrial Training Institute at Suri is headed by a 
Principal, who has under him 2 Foremen, 42 Instructors and 6 
Workshop Attendants. 


• • 


GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


The Assistant Controller of Weights and Measures at Suri is 
responsible for the implementation of the West Bengal Standards 
of Weights and Measures (Enforcement) Act of 1958 and the Rules 
made thereunder in 1959. He has under him 1 Inspector of 
Weights and Measures. 

The Assistant Registrar of Cooperative Societies posted at Suri 
and assisted by 1 District Auditor of Cooperative Societies, 1 Co¬ 
operative Development Officer, 30 Inspectors and 30 Auditors 
heads the cooperative administration of the district. 

The District Inspector of Schools stationed at Suri exercises 
general supervision over all types of schools. He has under him 
4 Assistant Inspectors of Schools, 1 Senior Technical Assistant, 
8 Deputy Assistant Inspectors of Schools, 8 Sub Inspectors of 
Schools, 1 Principal and 6 Lecturers attached to Shyampahari 
Government Junior Basic Training College. 

The District Officer for Physical Education and Youth Welfare 
at Suri is responsible for planning, organizing and supervising 
physical education, sports and games in all grades of educational 
institutions, youth clubs and associations. He has under him 1 
District Organiser. 

The District Commercial Tax organization is managed by 1 
Commercial Tax Officer, Grade 1, 1 Commercial Tax Officer, 
Grade II and 1 Inspector of Commercial Taxes all stationed at 
Suri. This organization is responsible for administration and 
collection of taxes under Bengal Financial (Sales Tax) Act, Bengal 
Motor Spirits Sales Tax Act, Bengal Raw Jute Taxation Act — all 
of 1941, West Bengal Sales Tax Act of 1954 and Central Sales 
Tax Act of 1956. 

The District Controller of Food and Supplies at Suri is in 
charge of the food and supplies organization. He is assisted in 
his varied duties by an Assistant District Controller, 1 Chief 
Inspector, 1 Auditor, 10 Inspectors and 8 Sub Inspectors. 

The District Fishery Officer at Suri is responsible for implement¬ 
ing all schemes of his department in the district. He has under 
him 1 Assistant Farm Manager and 1 Assistant Fishery Officer. 

The Divisional Forest Officer is in charge of Birbhum Forest 
Division with head-quarters at Suri. He has under him 6 Forest 
Rangers and 20 Foresters. 

The Assistant Engineer, Rural Water Supply, Suri looks after 
the execution of the schemes of water supply in the rural areas. 
He is assisted in his technical works by 14 technical persons. 


Weights & 
Measures 


Co-operation 


Education 


Commercial 

Tax 


Food Sc 
Supplies 


Fisheries 


Forest 


Rural Water 
Supply # 


t 


358 


BIRBHUM 


Information 
and Public 
Relations 


Irrigation 


National 

Employment 

Service 


Survey and 
Settlement 


Registration 


The District Information and Public Relations Officer at Suri 
is in charge of information and public relations works. He has 
under him 1 Sub divisional Information and Public Relations 
Officer for the Sadar Subdivision and one for Rampurhat sub¬ 
division. 

The Superintending Engineer at Suri is the Controlling Officer 
of the Mayurakshi River Project. He heads- the Circle Office 
which consists of 1 Technical Assistant, 1 Head Estimator, 2 
Estimators, 1 Draftsman, 1 Tracer, 1 Kanungo and 1 Amin. 

The Mayurakshi South Canals Division is headed by an Execu- 
Engineer, who is assisted by 5 Assistant Engineers, 21 Sub Assis¬ 
tant Engineers, 2 Draftsmen, 2 Tracers and 1 Divisional 
Accountant. 

The Mayurakshi South Canals Division is headed by an Execu¬ 
tive Engineer who has for his jurisdiction parts of the districts of 
Birbhum, Burdwan and Murshidabad. He has under him 2 
Assistant Engineers (Gazetted) and 2 non-Gazetted Subdivisional 
Officers, 21 Sub Assistant Engineers, 3 Surveyors, 15 Work Assis¬ 
tants, 2 Draftsmen and 2 Tracers. 

The Assistant Employment Officer looks after the administration 
of the Employment Exchange at Suri under the directorate of 
National Employment Service. He supervises the registration and 
placement of the unemployed persons, who report to the exchange 
for employment assistance. He also imparts vocational guidance 
to the candidates and disseminates job information to them. He 
also sees that the Compulsory Notification of Vacancies Act is 
properly enforced and contacts the employers for vacancies. 

I he Charge Officer looks after the settlement and survey work 
under the provision of the West Bengal Estates Acquisition Act. 
Since the introduction of the Act, he has been engaged for the 
preparation and publication of Compensation Assessment Rolls 
for payment of compensation to the ex-intermediaries. This 
organization has, moreover, 8 Special Revenue Officers who 
generally look after the preparation of Records of Rights, Com¬ 
pensation Assessment Rolls and also hear the objection cases. 

There are two Sub-Registry Offices at Suri and.eight Sub- 
Registry Offices in the outlying areas. The offices at Suri 
exercise jurisdiction over the police stations of Suri, Rajnagar, 
Mahammad Bazar and Sainthia. Dubrajpur Sub-Registry Office 
is located at Dubrajpur and has jurisdiction over the police stations 
of Dubrajpur and Khayrasol. Bolpur Sub Registry Office has 
jurisdiction over the police stations of Bolpur, Labhpur, Irambazar 



GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


3*59 


and Nanur. Nanur Sub-Registry Office has jurisdiction over the 
police stations of Labhpur, Nanur, Bolpur and Ilambazar. 
Rampurhat Sub-Registry Office has jurisdiction over the police 
stations of Rampurhat and Mayureswar. Mollarpur Sub-Registry 
Office at Mollarpur has jurisdiction over the police stations of 
Rampurhat and Mayureswar. Nalhati Sub-Registry Office at 
Nalhati has jurisdiction over the police stations of Nalhati and 
Murarai. Murarai Sub-Registry office is at Murarai and has 
jurisdiction over the police stations of Nalhati and Murarai. 

The volume of business transacted by all these Sub Registry 
Offices taken together for the year 1969-70 appears in the table 
below: 


REGISTRATIONS IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT : 1969-70 


Gift 

— 

5,595 

Sale 

— 

66,430 

Mortgage 

— 

6,667 

Lease 

— 

470 

Will 

,— 

66 

Others 

— 

5,069 

Total Receipts 

—, Rs. 

7,47,992 

Total expenditure 

— Rs. 

3,79,069 

B. T. 

ACT 


Transactions 

— 

89,562 

Total receipts 

— Rs. 

72,688 

Total expenditure 

— Rs. 

13,111 


I he Public *Works (Maintenance) administration in Birbhum 
is headed by an Executive Engineer, who is assisted by 3 Assistant 
Engineers, 11 Sub Assistant Engineers, 2 Draftsmen and 2 Tracers. 

The Public Works (Roads) administration is headed by 
2 Assistant Engineers, one of them being posted at Suri and the 
other at Rampurhat. The Assistant Engineer, Suri, has under him 
4 Sub Assistant Engineers, 1 Mechanic and 1 Assistant Mechanic. 

The Assistant Engineer, Rampurhat, has under him 1 Work- 
charged Assistant Engineer and 1 Work-charged Sub Assistant 
Engineer. 


The Public 
Works 
Department 
set-up 


360 


BIRBHUM 


Tourism 


Bureau of 
Applied 
Economics 
and Statistics 


Eire 

Services 


Central 

Government 

set-up 

Income Tax 


Postal 


National 

Savings 


Customs Sc 

Central 

Excise 

Organization 

under 

Statutory 

Bodies 

Food 

Corporation 
of India 

State 

Electricity 

Board 


Life 

Insurance 

Corporation 


The Construction Board under the Public Works Department 
lias an Assistant Engineer, who is assisted by 3 Sub Assistant 
Engineers. 

The Suii Electrical Section under the Western Electrical Division 
of the Public Works Department consists of 1 Sub Assistant 
Engineer, 1 Head Wireman and 1 Senior Wireman. 

There is a Manager to look after the Tourist Lodge at Santi- 
niketan. He has under him 2 Receptionists. 

The Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, responsible 
for crop survey, socio-economic survey, etc., has an Assistant 
Superintendent to look after its administration in the district along 
with the Ausgram Police Station of the district of Burdwan and 
the Khargram Police station of the district of Murshidabad. He 
is assisted by 1 Supervisor and 4 Inspectors. 

There is a Station Officer assisted by 2 Sub Officers, 7 Fire 
Engine Operators, 7 Leaders and 29 Firemen. 

The Income Tax Officer at Suri is empowered to act both as 
tax imposing and tax collecting authority in respect of all assessees 
within the district. The Income Tax Officer is assisted by 

The Birbhum Postal Division extends over the district of 
irbhum along with parts of the districts of Murshidabad and 
Burdwan. A Superintendent of Post Offices heads this division 
and is assisted by 1 Higher Selection Grade Postmaster. 

There is i District Organiser to organise the National Savings 
in the district. He is assisted by a number of part time Agents 
appointed by the district authorities. 

For the collection of minor excise duties, there is 1 Superinten¬ 
dent Central Excise for the Birbhum district and he has under 
him 4 Inspectors and 1 Sub Inspector. 

„I. he ui DlStrict Mana ger heads this organization for the district 
of Birbhum. He is assisted by 1 Joint District Manager, 5 Assis¬ 
tant Managers, 7 Chief Inspectors, 49 Inspectors, 19 Sub Inspectors. 
He has also under him 182 other employees of different categories 
Tor the supervision of operation and maintenance of trans¬ 
mission and distribution system, the Board has .a Divisional 
Engineer for the district. He is assisted by 5 Assistant Engineers. 

, , Boar f has an Assistant Engineer at Suri to look after the 
rural electrification works. 

h T ! K , 1“" ® ranch of the Life Insurance Corporation of India is 
headed by a Branch Manager being assisted by 2 Assistant Branch 
Managers.^ one for administration and the other for development 


GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 


361 


Appendix 

Community Development Blocks and Block Head-quarters 


Name of the Block 

1. Bolpur • 

2. Dubrajpur 

3. Ilambazar 

4. Khayrasol 

5. Labhpur 

6. Mahammad Bazar 

7. Mayureswar I 

8. Mayureswar II 

9. Murarai I 

10. Murarai II 

11. Nanur 

12. Nalhati I 

13. Nalhati II 

14. Rampurhat I 

15. Rampurhat II 

16. Rajnagar 

17. Sainthia 

18. Suri I 

19. Suri Jl 


Block Head-quarters 

Sriniketan 

Dubrajpur 

Ilambazar 

Churor 

Labhpur 

Patelnagar 

Mollarpur 

Kotasur 

Murarai 

Paikor 

Nanur 

Nalhati' 

Lohapur 

Rampurhat 

Rampurhat 

Rajnagar 

Ahmadpur 

Suri 

Purandarpur 



V. 


CHAPTER X 


Land Revenue 
Administration 

History of 
Land Revenue 
assessment and 
Management 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 

The Sanskrit word for land revenue is rajasva or “that which 
is due to the king'’. The Sanskrit word more precisely describes 
the real nature of land revenue in India than dhe English terms 
land-revenue, land-tax, quit rent, etc. Land revenue in ancient 
India was a share of the produce of the land due to the king for 
his maintenance in lieu of which the king was enjoined to look 
to the welfare, happiness and protection of the people from 
aggression. Land revenue was thus a vali due to the king. In 
the Rigveda king Nahusha is said to have realised this vali from 
the villages. 1 * The use of the term vali seems to indicate that 
the king had no absolute property right in the lands which vested 
in the village commune. In the Kurudhamma Jat aka 2 a man 
taking a handful of paddy ears from a field remorsefully remarks 
that he had to give a share of it to the king. Thus by the 
6th century B.C. the right of the king to a share of the crop 
was already an established practice. The word vali is used in 
the same sense in the Rummindei Pillar Edict of Asoka when 
he decreed that the village of Lumbini was made free of revenue. 3 

The ancient law givers Manu, 1 5 6 and Kautilya in the Arthasastrct 
and the Malwbhdrata lay down the rule that the revenue is to 
be realised little by little and as far as the economy would bear. 
In the pharaseology of the Mahdbhdrata the state must not be 
overmilked. (> According to Sukra-Niti land revenue is to be 
collected just as a garlandmaker collects the flowers from the 
trees (taking care not to injure them) and not in the manner of 
the charcoal maker who burns the forest to get his charcoal. 7 

1 Rigveda, VII. 6.5. 

I ausboll—Jataka No. 276: Imam ha heddrd tiiayd rah ho bhago dalaxwo 
adinnabhagato yeva cha me kedarato salisishamushti gdhdpito “This is 
the paddy-field of which a share has to he given by me to the King- 
from the (still) unshared field a handful of ears of paddy is taken bv 
me’’. 1 1 1 

1 Hultzsch, Corpus Inscriptions Indicarum, Vol. I pp 160 ff 

* Manu, Chapter VII, Verse 129. 

5 Kautilya’s Arthasastra —Shamasastri’s edition. Book V, Ch. II. 

6 Sant i lxxvii, 20-22. It will be shown later how this early British 
Administration had over-milked Bengal. 

7 iv , ii, 35-36. The land-revenue policy of the early British Administrators 

was similar to the action of the charcoal-maker, because within 20 years 
of the Permanent Settlement the entire landed aristocrasy of Bengal 
was mined and deprived of their Zemindaries by Revenue-sales with 
the sol<^ exception of the Maharaja of Burdwan. “ 



REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


363 


Such were the Hindu tenets for the assessment and realisation ^ 
of land revenue. We do not know the exact manner in which 
land revenue was assessed and collected in Birbhum before the 
Afghan conquest in the middle of the 13th century A.D. But 
from several copper plate land records of the Gupta period 
(which* will be* discussed later) it appears that in Bengal the 
village commune* ownership of the lands continued. The insti¬ 
tution of gmmika or a warden of the village mentioned in Manu 
also find mention in these plates; there were also a class ol 
officer known as pustapala who maintained the village records 
(cf. patwari of later days); there were also the kutumbins op 
village headmen without whose permission no land could be 
sold. Not much information is available about the revenue 
system of Bengal during the reign of the Afghan rulers. But 
considering the fact that the Governors and independant Afghan 
rulers of Lakhnauti were very much affluent, it would not be 
unreasonable to presume that the collection of land revenue 
continued to be satisfactory. This leads to the other presumption 
that the Afghan rulers had the wisdom to leave the old Hindu 
system of assessment and collection undisturbed. The only change 
they made was to create certain military jaigirs for the purpose 
of governance of the country and proper realisation ol the 
revenues from the Bishayis and Mandaliks. Sikander Shah (A.D. 
1358 to 1367) is said to have made a revenue settlement but the 
details are lost. There is a tradition that Sher Shah caused a 
measurement of the lands in Bengal and fixed ^th of the 
estimated produce of the lands as Government’s revenue. The 
details of the arrangement by which this share of the Government 
was realised is not known. Anyway, we have no record of there 
being any Muquiddim or Aumil appointed by Sher Shah in 
Bengal as he did in his jaigir in Bihar. Most likely, the alleged 
measurement was not a measurement of the land but a com¬ 
putation of the measurement from the village records and an 
assessment based on such records of the realisable dues of the 
Government. 

After the defeat of Daud Khan_ Karrani, Akbar appointed 
Raja Todarmull to make a revenue survey of Bengal. An account 
of this revenue survey on Akbar’s principles is qpntained in the 
A in-i-A kbari. It is generally believed that Todarmull’s revenue 
settlement was a detailed and actual field survey of Bengal, but 
considering the time during which Todarmull was in Bengal 
it woflld be impossible to survey 90,000 sq. miles ajid fix the 


^ c. 


Mughal 

Revenue 

system 


e- 


J0,4 BiRBHUM 

lent or revenue on such survey. The scheme said to have been 
followed by Todarmull between A.D. 1582 and A.D, 1587 was 
to measure each field by a standard measuring rope and add up 
such measurement for the entire Pargana. Next, the classifications 
of lands were made dependent upon the quality of soil and the 
crops produced. As, in Bengal, the accepted practice of the 
tenants was to pay rent or revenue in cash which Akbar allowed, 
Todarmull is said to have collected the current price of staple 
crops for 19 years and computed an average. On the basis of 
the measurement of the lands and assessment of its productivity 
and on the average price of staple crops produced, a tukseem 
jumma was drawn up Pargana by Pargana and these tukseem 
jummas were added up to compute the A si Toomary Jumma of 
the province as follows: 


682 Parganas comprising 19 circars — K ha Isa Rs. 63,44,260 

Jaigir Rs. 43,48,892 


Total Rs. 1,06,93,152 

Doubts have been expressed that the so-called A si Toomary 
Jumma of Todarmull was not an actual statement of facts and 
computation based on measurement but a tentative figure of what 
the land revenue of Bengal would be according to the principles 
enunciated by Akbar. For, it is significant that while the Ain-l- 
Akhari gives figures for measurement of other subahs, no figure 
of measurement is given of the subah of Bengal. Moreover, it 
is a fact of history that the area around Chittagong did not 
come under the Mughal sway till long after Todarmull’s survey 
but the Ain-I-Akbari gives a revenue of Chittagong as well. 
Akbar s plan as given in the Ain-I-Akbari reveals an appointment 
of Aumil and over them of Amil-Guzars for the realisation of 
the said revenues. The fact, however, is that no such officers 
are known in Bengal. In fact, this could not be, because in 
Bengal there were certainly big zamindars or local rajas who 
were responsible for the collection from the tenants. The account 
given in the AMi-l-Akbari does not mention a single such raja. 
It was probably on these considerations that Sir John Shore 
m his minute dated 18 June 1789 mentioned, “Turymull 
(Todarmull—Ed.) is supposed to have fixed the rent payable by 
t e ryots, c but by what rules he settled it we are not ceftainly 



REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


365 


informed. The Assul Jumma established by him does not any¬ 
where exist.” 1 1 

Even though there are doubts about the authenticity of the 
revenue settlement of Todarmull, it appears that his figures were 
followed as the basis of revisions in subsequent assessment during 
the Mughal rule. The first such revised assessment was made 
during the Vice-Regency of Prince Sujah in A.D. 1658 as under: 

Rs. 

63,44.260 


9,87,162 


14,35,500 


87,67,015 

43,48,892 


Total — 1,31,15,907 

Akbar’s revenue system implemented in TodarmulPs revenue 
survey of A.D. 1582 envisaged that there would be revisional 
settlement at decennial periods and the Asl Toomary Jamma 
continuously corrected on the basis of revisional surveys. But 
so far as Bengal subah is concerned, it does not appear that 
any revisional survey was made after Todarmull and before the 
British Government started survey and settlement operations. 
For, if there had been revisional surveys, the revised assessment 
of Prince Sujah as stated above would have corrected the original 
Asl Toomary Jamma of Todarmull on the basis of surveys. But 
Prince Sujah’s revision was merely an addition to the Asl Toomary 
Jamma by improving the rental on existing hastabood for the 
same territory. Annexation of new dominion and sources, how¬ 
ever, were perhaps separately surveyed and the demand com¬ 
puted as shown above. 


Assil Jumma Toomary (Todarmull) 

Ezafa or increase in the hastabood or 
in the valuation of ancient or actual 
revenue being the improved rbntal of 
the same extent of country in a period 
of 76 years: 1582 to 1658 

Annexation of new dominion or sources 
of revenue either Mahal or Sayer 

Jaigir 


i 


Par^ 218 of the minute—5th Report on East India Affairs 1812. Re¬ 
printed Firminger Edition, 1917. p. 53. o 


366 


BIRBHUM 


Thus, even during the reign of Shahjahan when the Grand 
Mughal Administration was at the zenith of its power, no 
revisional survey was conducted. The next change in the assess¬ 
ment was in A.D. 1722 after the death of Aurangzeb when the 
grand fabric of the Mughal Administration had began to crumble 
down. Jaffar Khan introduced the first subahddri abwab • called 
khas nabisi. All the zamindars were put into prison by Jaffar 
Khan and he divided the entire Bengal subah into 19 chaklas or 
units of fiscal divisions. He appointed aumils to collect rent 
direct from the tenants. The total Toomary Jamma of Prince. 
Sujah was enhanced on the basis of direct collection hastaboods 
to Rs. 1,42,38,186. From this period to A.D. 1763, when Kassem 
Ali (Mir Kasim) was made the figure-head Nawab by the British, 
the Jumma continued to be recklessly increased by addition of 
subahdari abwabs which were as many as 12 in number. The 
total amount of abwab added to the assessment of Prince Sujah 
was Rs. 1,17,91,853' as detailed below: 

Rs. 

First, — Period, in Jaffer Khan’s government 
to 1726; viz. (1st) Woojoohat 
Khasnoveessy, the only additional 
impost .. 2,58,857 

Second, — in Sujah Khan to 1739, four additional 
articles: 

(2nd) Nuzzeranath Mokurrery, 
amounting to rupees .. 6,48,040 

(3rd) Jer Mat hoot .. 1,52,786 

(4th) Mat hoot Feel Khaneh .. 3,22,631 

(5th) Fojedarry Abwab .. 7,90,638 

- 19,14,095 

Third, — in Aliverdi Khan’s to 1755. three more: 

(6th) Chout Marhatta, 
amounting to .. 15,31,817 

(7th) Ahuk and Khest Gour .. 1,92,140 

(8th) Nuzzeranath 

Munsoorgunge .. 5,01,597 

- 22,25,554 


From Analysis of J. Grant, Sheristadar —vide Firminger, Fifth Report. 



* 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


367 


Fourth, — in Cossim Ali Khan’s to 1763, 
the four ultimate imposts: 

(9th) Keffyet Hustabood. 
amounting to .. 14,72,599 

* (10th) Serf Sicca, 1| anna .. 4,53,488 

(11 th> Keffyet Foujedaran .. 36,74,239 

(12th) Towfeer Jageerdaran .. 18,81,014 


Rs. 


74,81,340 


TOTAL amount of viceroyal assessments, on Mhal 
and Sayer of the Khalsa and Jageer Lands of the 
soubah of Bengal, established proportionately to the 
original rent roll of Jaffer Khan, in our soubahdarry 
administrations, from the Fussillee year 1128 to 1170 
inclusive, or the 11th April 1763 of the Christian era. 

Minha, or deduction of the amount passed to the 
account of Tipperah in the time of Sujah Khan, under 
the head of Foujedarry Abwab, when so much of the 
Jumma Toomary, as had been struck out of the 
Bundobust in consequence of the acquired indepen¬ 
dence of the Zemindar after the death of Jaffer Khan, 
was again restored to the soubah, though retained as 
a private perquisite of office by the Foujedar 
previously 

Teshkhees or Net Jumma Aboab 


1.18,79,846 


87,993 


1,17,91,853 


The progressive increase of the total jumma of Bengal subah 
from the time of Todarmull to A.D. 1763 would appear from 
the following table. 


PROGRESSIVE ACCOUNT OF THE SETTLEMENT' 
OF BENGAL FROM A.D. 1582 TO 1763 


Turymull’s Settlement, 1582: 
Khalsa Lands 
Jagheer or assigned lands 

Total Assignment 


- Rs. 
63,44,260 
43,48,892 


Rs. 


1,06,93,152 


1 From the Appendix to the Minute of Sir John Shore: loc. J cit. 


I 


368 


BIRBFIUM 


Sultan Sujah’s Settlement in A.D. 1658 

1: Rs. 

Khalsa Lands, as above 

63,44,260 

Increase on a hustabood in 


76 years 

9,87,162 

Annexations territory 

14,35,593 

Jagheer or assigned lands 

87,67,015 

43,48,892 

Total Assignment 

• . 

Jaffer Khan’s Settlement in A.D. 1722: 


Khalsa lands, as above. 


according to Sujah’s settlement 

87,67,015 

increase in 64 years 

11,72,279 

Resumed lands from the 


Jagheer appropriations 

10,21,415 

Total Khalsa 

1,09,60,709 

Jagheer or assigned lands 

33,27,477 

Total Assessment 

. . 

Sujah Khan’s Settlement in 1135 B.S. or 

A.D. 1728: 

Khas lands 

1,09,18,084 

Jagheer or assigned lands 

33,27,477 

Total Assessment 

, . 

Kossim Ali Khan’s Settlement in A.D. 

1763: 

Jumma, as above, according to 


Sujah Khan’s assessment 

1,42,45,561 

Deduct: Dismembered territory. 

O 

Muzkooraut, Dacca, Jagheer and 


Sebundy charges 

4,13,191 

Add: Taxes progressively 

1,38,32,370 

imposed from the year 


1722 to the year 1763 

1,17,91,853 


Total Assessment 

u 


Rs. 


1,31,15,907 


1,42,88.186 


1,42.45,561 


2,56,24,223 


3 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 369 

Emperor Akbar, who introduced the Mughal revenue system 
in Bengal, had the wisdom to realise that where the revenue is 
to be collected from millions of individual cultivators there must 
be a system and that system must not be something which is 
entirely different from what the tenants are used to. Accordingly, 
TodarmuH’s revenue survey and settlement in general followed 
the Hindu pattern of assessing £ of the gross produce as the 
king’s share converted into a cash rent based upon average 
prices of commodities for 19 years. Emperor Akbar s scheme 
made no provision for increase of the total demand by imposition 
of arbitrary abwabs without a proper re-valuation of the quantity 
of land cultivated, the crops produced and their value and increase 
in total cultivated area. Prince Sujah Khan’s increase of assess¬ 
ment was merely on the re-valuation of increases in cultivation 
which apparently was obtained by some sort of survey. From 
the time of Jaffer Khan started the imposition of pernicious abwabs 
which increased the total rate of payment by the cultivators, for 
obviously the zemindars passed the increased demands on to 
the ryots and in all likelihood at a higher rate. The percentage 
increases in the total revenue demand was 9.2 in 76 years in the 
assessment of Sultan Sujah, 8.5 in 64 years in the assessment of 
Jaffer Khan, 15.6 in the assessment of Aliverdi Khan in 28 years 
and 55.6 in the assessment of Kashem Ali in 7 years. The 
assessment of Kashem Ali started off the famous controversy 
between Sir John Shore and James Grant. We need not enter 
into the details of that controversy but may state briefly that 
Grant was of opinion that the assessment of Kashem Ali was 
fair and the land could bear it and even more, while Sir John 
Shore was definitely of the opinion that the- same assessment 
was rack-renting and economy of the country would never bear 
it. 1 

In order to pay his debts to the East India Company Nawab 
Kashem Ali Khan ceded the revenues of the three districts to the 
East India Company, the remainder, therefore, became the dewani 
lands of Bengal which the Company were to administer as 
dewan since 1765. The proportionate assessment of the dewani 
lands according to the Jumma of Kashem Ali was Rs. 2.41,18.912. 
The following table taken from Shore’s minutes dated 18 June 


1 Inspire of vehement opposition by Sir John Shore, the views of ]. Grant 
foundf favour with the East India Company—and formed the basis of 
the assessment at the Permanent Settlement. j 


24 


370 


BIKBHUM 


1789 would show the collection position and 
ment of Kashem Ali. 

arrears of the assess- 

S I A I F.MEM : 

Gross Settle¬ 
ment 

Collection 

Balance 

B. Years 

Rs. 

Rs. 

Rs. 

1169. A.D. 1762-3 Cossim Ali 

2,41,18,912 

64*56,198 

1,76,62,713 

1170.— 1763-.] Xuiuicoomar 

1,77,04,766 

76,18,407 

1.00,86,358 

1171. — 1764-5 

1 . 7 fi' 97 >C >78 

l8 - 75 » 5 S 3 

95 «* a > 1 4 -t 

11 7 8 - — 1765-6 Mahd. Re/a 

% 

Khan 1,60,29,011 1 

,47,04,875 

13.24.135 


I he last entry in the above table refers to the collection made 
by the East India Company through the naib dewaii Md. Reza 
Khan. It would appear that the actual collections fell far short 
of Cossim Ali’s assessment. The table in Appendix A, taken 
from Shores minutes, would show that during a period of three 
years the total reduction which had to be allowed on the jumma 
was to the tune of Rs. 80.9 lakhs. 

In the meantime, the East India Company had run severely 
into debts and needed money to pay off the debts. The Directors, 
the re foie, clamoured lor greater collection. Whispers went around 
that both Nundcoomar and Mahomed Reza Khan have made 
secret personal profits which caused the shortfall in the collection. 
Mahomed Reza Khan was put on trial but was honourably 
acquitted. 

During the time of management of Mahomed Reza Khan, 
European officers under the designation of Supra visor- were 
appointed to the districts and they were enjoined to make enquiries 
about the revenue not earlier than Sujah Khan. But the step 
next taken made the appointment of Supravisors superfluous. 
C ontrary to the advice of Mahomed Reza Khan,'-settlements were 
made by local auction to the highest bidder for a term of five 
years. The purpose of this procedure was to ascertain by this 
manner the maximum capacity of the country for revenue and it 
was considered that the “natives” coming up to bid would possess 
better knowledge of the real assets of particular estates than 
what the Company’s officers would find out. This may be said 
to be the most insane project that the British had ever tried in 
India. The opinion of Mill is quoted on the result of this project. 

“At an early period, under the five years’ settlement (cf 1772), 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


371 


it was perceived, that the farmers of the revenue had contracted 
for more than they were able to pay. 1 he collections fell short • 
of the engagements even for the first year ; and the farms had 
been let upon a progressive rent. The Governor-General was 
now accused by his colleagues of having deceived his honourable 
masters, by holding up to their hopes a revenue which could not 
be obtained. * * • 

“The failure of exaggerated hopes was not the only evil whereof 
the farm by auction was accused. Zemindars, through whose 
agency the revenue of the district had formerly been realized, 
and whose office and authority had generally grown into heredi¬ 
tary possessions, comprising both an estate and a magistracy, 
or even a species of sovereignty, when the territory and jurisdic¬ 
tion were large ; were either thrown out of their possessions ; or 
from an ambition to hold the situation which had given opulence 
and rank to their families, perhaps for generations, they bid for 
the taxes more than the taxes could enable them to pay ; and 
reduced themselves by the bargain to poverty and ruin. When 
the revenues were farmed to the zemindars, these contractors were 
induced to turn upon the ryots, and others from whom their 
collections were levied, the same rack which was applied to 
themselves. When they were farmed to the new adventurer who 
looked only to a temporary profit, and who had no interest in 
the permanent prosperity of a people with whom he had no 
permanent connexion, every species of exaction to which no 
punishment was attached, or of which the punishment could by 
artifice be evaded, was to him a fountain of gain.” (Vol. IV. p. 3). 

“The five years’ lease expired in April. 1777 ; and the month 
of July of that year had arrived before any plan-for the current 
and future years had yet been determined. By acknowledgement of 
all parties, the country had been so grievously over-taxed, as to 
have been altogether unable to carry up its payments to the level 
of the taxation. - According to the statement of the Accountant- 
General, dated the 12th of July, 1777, the remissions upon the 
five-years’ lease amounted to 1,18,79.576 Rupees ; and the 
balances, of which the greater part were wholly irrecoverable, 
amounted to 1.29,26,910 rupees. ***'011 the 15th of July, it 
was determined that the following plan should be adopted for 
the year ; that the lands should be offered to the old zemindars 
on the rent-roll or assessment of the last year, or upon a new 
estimate formed by the provincial council.” (Vol. IV. pp. 9 
and 10$. 


372 


BIRBHUM 


“The above mode of settlement was renewed from year to 
c year, till 1781, when a Committee of Revenue was formed. It 
was intruste'd to the Committee to form a plan for the future 
assessment and collection of the revenues. And the following 
are the expedients of which they made choice: to form an 
estimate of the abilities of the several districts, -form antecedent 
accounts, without recurring to local inspection jind research: to 
lease the revenues, without intermediate agents, to the zemindars, 
where the zemindary was of considerable extent: and, that they 
might save government the trouble of detail, in those places 
where the revenues were in the hands of a number of petty 
renters, to let them altogether, upon annual contracts.” (Mill. 
Vol. IV. p. 254). But nothing seemed to improve the financial 
position of the Company. “The net territorial revenues of 
Bengal, Behar. and Orissa, instead of increasing had actually 
declined. In the year ending the 1st of May 1772 (the last year 
of management through native naib Dewans) they amounted to 
the sum of 2,126,766£ and in the year ending on the same day 
in 1785, to that of 2.072.968£. In Lord Cornwallis’ celebrated 
revenue letter dated the 16th November 1786 it is allowed, that 
the state of the accounts exhibits a debt in India of 8,91.25,518 
rupees, and assets valued at 5,81,24,567, with a balance against 
the Company of 3,10.00,950. But Lord Cornwallis observes, that 
the amount of assets is so much made up for the sake of show, 
that is, a delusion, that it presents a result widely different from 
the truth ; and that the balance between the debts, and such 
assets as are applicable to their extinction, would not, in his 
opinion, fall short of 7,50.00,000 rupees." (Vol. IV. p. 358). 

Thus it fell to the lot of the Bengal people to pay the maximum 
of land revenue so that a huge deficit balance in the accounts 
of the Company could be liquidated. Mahomed Reza Khan 
from his practical experience had found that the maximum reali¬ 
sation that could be made was about Rs. 1.60 crores. The total 
cultivated area in Bengal at that time, according to the estimate 
of Grant, was 11.5 million acres. Taking 13 mds. of rice as the pro¬ 
duction per acre, the value of produce per acre was approximately 
Rs. 6 and 8 annas. The value of the total production of 1 1.5 million 
acres would come to Rs. 7.48 crores. 1 Sir John Shore’s estimate was 
only Rs. 6 crores. 2 Taking \ of the gross produce of land as 
the land revenue due to the State the total revenue assessment could 

M. X. Gupta— Land, System of Bengal, p. 132. 
sir John Shore—para 109 of the minutes. 0 


1 


RfcVHNUli ADMINISTRATION 


373 


not exceed Rs. 1.87 crores if the rents were realised from the ryots 
direct. 11 zemindars are interposed an assessment of more than 
1.67 crores could not be justified. Yet the Directors of the 

East India Company insisted that the net land revenue from 
Bengal with Midnapore and Bihar must not be less than Rs. 2.60 
crores. 1 '* It is in the background of these conditions, namely, 
Ihe huge debts oT the East India Company and the insistence 
of the Directors that in 1790-91 a total jumma of Rs. 2,68,00,989 
was fixed. This exceeded even Kashem Ali’s assessment by 
Rs. 11,76,766. This assessment with slight variations was made 
the basis of the Permanent Settlement of 1793. 

In coming to this assessment no consideration appears to have 
been paid to the large-scale decimation of population in the 

famine of 1770 whereby 1/3 of the population of Bengal was 
wiped out. Another factor to which Sir John Shore drew atten¬ 
tion was the shortage of metal currency in Bengal. “Upon the 
whole I have no hesitation in concluding that, since the Com¬ 
pany’s acquisition of the dewanny, the current specie of the 

country has been greatly diminished in quantity ; that the old 
channels of importation, by which the drains were formerly re¬ 
plenished, are now in a great measure closed; and that the 

necessity of supplying China, Madras and Bombay, with money, 
as well as the exportation of it by Europeans to England, will 
Contribute still further to exhaust the country of its silver.” 2 3 This 
had further decreased the money value of crops and to pay a 
certain cash rent the proportion of the total produce which the 
ryots had to part with increased. 1 

Whatever may have been the benefits the Permanent Settlement 
brought to the zemindars of later days, the zemindars with whom 
the Permanent Settlement was first concluded in 1793 could not 
bear the high incidence of taxation. 

The Birbhum^ zemindary was created in 1722 by Jaffer Khan 
alter the third Mahal revenue revision of Bengal referred to 
earlier. This zemindary was originally granted to Assid-Ulla, an 
Afghan. It consisted originally of 22 Parganas with a net revenue 
demand of Rs. 3,66,779. Three parganas were - added seven 

1 M. N. Gupta— loc. cit., p. 133. 

3 Firminger —On the Affairs vf the East India Company, Volume II, para 
140. p.' 33. 

3 Though Shore was of the opinion that Kashem Ali Khan’s assessment 
was rack-renting and the total revenue from land in Bengal should 
not exceed Rs. 1.50 crores, yet when he returned to India as Governor- 
Genertd after Cornwallis, he did nothing to mitigate the sufferings caused 
by the high assessment in the Permanent Settlement. 


374 


BIRBIIUM 


years later with a jumma of Rs. 10,857. Grant mentions that 
the jumma then settled was for only 1/3 of the zemindary and 
the zemindar (raja) was allowed to enjoy the remaining 2/3 as 
he was to keep a militia to protect the frontier against attacks 
of bandits from the Santal parganas, etc. Kashem Ali in 1760 
took away this privilege and added a “keffyet hustabood ” to the 
extent of Rs. 8,96,275. The total gross rental*and the pargana 
roomary Jumma of 1135 Bengali era appears from the following 
table taken from Grant’s “Analysis”. 


CHUCKS & PERGUNS 

Chuck. Moorshedabad: 

Perganas 
Pgs. Akbershaky 
Barbeksing K. 
Bherkondah K. .. 
Kootalpoor 
Mulessir K. 

Seroopsing 
Shahzaapoor 
Kerimgong 
Koownpertaub K. 
Kenher Joar 
Mhola K. 

Russoolpoor K .. 
Futtehpoor K. .. 

Pehtyal K. 

Mhelund K. 

Plassey K. 

Dhawak K. 


Cirears 

Jumma 

roomary 


1135 


Shereefabad 

24,176 

Do 

38,823 

Do 

19,737 

Do 

16,796 

Audimber 

78,656 

Do 

55,171 

Do 

3,776 

Do 

1,622 

Do 

2,012 

Do 

1,298 

Do 

406 

Do 

176 

Shereefabad 

1,958 

Satgong 

4,126 

Audimber 

11 

V 

2,48,744 


Shah 

Selimpoor 
Kehrgong 
Kinker Joar 
M. Towfeer 


9,862 Shereefabad * .. 

800 Do 

195 Audimber 

10,857 


% 


4 


2:59,601 


# 


„ * REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 

375 




Jumma 

Chuck Burdwan 1135 

Circars 

Toomary 




1135 

Perg Beerbhoom 

21,765 

Mendarum 


Seinbhom 

46,016 

Do 


Sherigurrah* 

7.687 

Do 


Kuttunga 

10,763 

Sherufeld 

1 18.035 

Zien Augul 

26,923 

Do 


Azmut shaky 

1.529 

Do 


MuzzefTer 




shaky 

3,352 

v Do 


25 

. 



Perg Total zemindary in 




1135 and to 1172 




of which, Ausil 




3,71,137 and 




Towfeer 

6,508 


3,77,645 

Abwabs to 1755, A.D. 



1st. Khasnovessy 

3,942 



2nd. Chout Marhatta . . 

63,780 

68,222 

l 

3rd. Zer Mat hoot 

500 



Kelfyet Hustabood in 1768 A.D. 

8,96,275 

9,64,497 

Total gross Rental 

in 1168 



and 1172 Bengali era 


13,42,143 

Deduct Serinjammv 



(Muscoorat only 3,120) 


26,713 

Total Malgoozary 

of the 



Zemy 

Sa. Rs. 


13,15,430 

It appears from the appendix 

9 of Sir John 

Shore’s minutes 

that by 1172 Bengali era i.e., in 

four years the 

jumma had to 

be reduced to Rs. 8 lakhs only. 

The following account taken 

from Hunter 1 would show the 

demand and 

collection from 


1772 to 1776. 


1 Hunter, Annuls of Rural Bengal, p. 41 of the 1965 Reprint* 




V 


376 



BIRBHUM 


Y ear 

Actual demand 

Actual colic* 


Rs. 

Rs. 

1772 

9,94,130 

5,52,070 

1773 

10,30,890 

6,23,650 

1774 

10,17,990 

1 5.25,330 

1775 

10,09,830 

• 5,39,970 

1776 

1,11,482 

6,33,500 


Thus, the actual collection never amounted to even a half of 
the assessment shown in Grants Analysis. This collection was 
when the land had been given in farm. In spite of the utmost 
severities adopted in the realisation of land revenue, the collec¬ 
tion never rose to expectations and by the time when the 
Government took over direct collection in about 1790 the jail 
was filled up with revenue prisoners not one of whom had any 
prospect of regaining liberty except by an amnesty. The severe 
effect ol the famine ol 1769-70 appears to have been completely 
overlooked by the English administrators at that time. Accord¬ 
ing to Hunter, of the 6.000 rural communes cultivating land in 
the Birbhum District in 1765 not more than 4,500 remained 
in 1785. The land cultivated by them relapsed to jungle and 
while the country every year became a more total waste, the 
English Governor constantly demanded an increased land tax. 

In such state ol affairs it was decided to make a detailed 
estimate of the assets of the Birbhum zemindary. Sherburne 
who was appointed Collector started measuring lands and pre¬ 
paring a rental of the different parganas. On the basis of such 
measurements Sherburne recommended an yearly revenue of Rs. 6.5 
lakhs and to begin with at Rs. 6.11 lakhs in the first year. Even 
with this reduced assessment, collection was never satisfactory; 
the collector constantly had to lend his troops to assist the raja 
in collecting rents from the tenants. In 1788-8^, when the raja 
tiied to increase the rents of the tenants there was a peasant 
revolt. In 1788, the raja Md. A1 Jamma Khan was a minor 
and Keating, the collector, was appointed manager and Lala Ram 
Nath was made the dewan. On the basis of figures supplied by 
Lala Ram Nath, Keating recommended a revenue of Rs. 6,50,000 
subject to the abolition of sair duties. This demand at first 
became the demand of the decennial settlement of 1790 and 
later became the demand of the Permanent Settlement of 1793. 

But the raja of Birbhum like many other zemindars fared ill 





UEVliNUE ADMINISTRATION 


377 


under the Permanent Settlement. The relentless sale law accord¬ 
ing to which proportionate parts of the estate were put up to 
sale 1‘or each default of monthly Kist began to take effect from 
the very first year of the decennial settlement and started the 
beginning of the end of the great zemindary. The statement 
below will show the number of lots put to sale for the arrears 


of revenue 

noted *against each 




Year 

No. of lots sold 
and new mahals 


Revenue demand 



created 

Rs. 

a. 

P- 

1790 

67 

14,908 

3 

10 

1791 

4 

4,324 

7 

0 

1792 

2 

140 

3 

0 

1793 

1 

449 

6 

0 

1794 

11 

28,684 

5 

0 

1796 

2 

68,715 

11 

10 

1797 

25 

1.06,127 

15 

0 

1798 

65 

1,88,127 

8 

2 

1799 

62 

68,940 

11 

7 

1800 

11 

1,443 

12 

1 

1801 

40 

55,706 

11 

4 


That the profits of the zemindars were rigorously low at the 
Permanent Settlement is well illustrated from the effect given 
above. Hereditary landed aristocracy of Bengal received the 
severest blow by the Permanent Settlement and they and all 
traditions that they stood for disappeared. The entire social 
organization received the rudest shock to which much of the 
depravement of cultural and economic values that has gone on 
since then can be traced. 

As the number of mahals went on increasing with the revenue 
sales, the total revenue actually fell to Rs. 6.23,000 in 1795 
because the demands on the newly created mahals were made 
on hustahood papers. Sales of bigger lots from 1793 increased 
the total revenue demand to some extent and the quinquennial 
register of 1799 showed 222 mahals with a total revenue demand 
of Rs. 6,91,824. Between 1840 and 1848, 153 petty estates were 
created by resumption of invalid lakheraj, which brought an 
addition of Rs. 13.149 to the revenue demand. Since then, 
the fluctuation of the revenue demand of the district,has been 



378 


BIRBHUM 


almost entirely due to transfer of touzis due to changes in the 
c jurisdiction of the district. 

According to the Settlement Report of 1924-32, the rent collect¬ 
ing interests in the district were the zemindars along with 
Patnidars, Dar-patnidars and Chhe-patnidars and under them 
came the actual tillers, the ryots and the under-ryots. The entire 
area of the district according to that survey was 11,15,498 acres 
or 1,742.92 sq. miles. The distribution of the total land of the 
district in general registers A & B is as follows. 


Estates borne 


on registers 

Number 

A. Part 1 

1.104 

K.M. estates 

6 

T.S. estates 

74 

A. Part II 

308 

B. Part I 

399 

B. Part 11 

19 

B. Part III 

— 

River area outside 


the record 



Area 

Revenue 


(in acres) 

Rs. a. 

P- 

9,52,384.06 

10,32,187 2 

5 

751.59 

3.045 7 

8 

7.640.85 

1,07,338.27 

3,744 13 

0 

23,957.41 



6.209.38 



105.01 



17,111.88 




11,15,498.45 10,38,977 7 1 

acres or 1,743 
sq. miles. 


Present system 
of assessment 
and collection 
of land revenue 


The total revenue demand as shown above was almost reached 
in 1887-88 when the total number of revenue paying estates was 
1,003 and the total revenue demand was Rs. 10.01.591. The total 
amount ol road and public works cesses was Rs. 1,59,125. 

The West Bengal Estates Acquisition Act, 1953, was brought 
into operation in two stages. In April 1955, all these zemindary and 
intermediary interests were abolished but the ryoti rent collecting 
interests were allowed to remain. All the rent collecting 
interests were abolished next year in April 1956 and the settlement 
cianged its character from a zemindary settlement to a ryotwari 
settlement. No revision of rents or rates of rent were made and 
no survey was taken up. The records of rights of the tenants as 
they stood after the survey and settlement operations of 1924-32 
were taken as the basis of this ryotwari settlement. The rent of 
the ryot or under-ryot who held all the lands of his jumma fn khas 



J 




0 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


379 


was allowed to stand as it was. Where the jumma had a sub¬ 
infeudation in part, the rent of the lands held khas in that jumma 
was assessed afresh on the basis of prevailing rates of rent of 
similar kind of land in the adjacent areas. The settlement opera¬ 
tion for this revision of rent roll was started from the stage of 
attestation and a revised rent roll for the entire district was thus 
prepared. The total demand on the basis of this revised rent 
roll for the district of Birbhum as it stood on 1 Baisakh 1367 B.S. 
is Rs. 39,43,742. The average incidence of rent on 10,68,484 
acres is Rs. 3.69 per acre. According to Hunter 1 the rate of rent 
in Birbhum district varied between Re. 1 as. 4 to Rs. 3/- per bigha 
or Rs. 3 as. 12 to Rs. 9/- per acre at the time of the Permanent 
Settlement. The average rate of rent as reported in the Survey 
and Settlement Report of 1924-32 is Rs. 3 as. 14 p. I per acre. 2 
The present average rate of rent appears to be lower than that at 
the time of the Permanent Settlement. 

I he Collector is the chief officer in charge of revenue collection 
in the district. An Addtional District Magistrate for estates 
acquisition has been appointed in the district and he is in direct 
charge of the affair and exercises all the powers of the Collector 
in the matter of collection of revenue. In each sub-division, the 
Sub-divisional Officer is in overall charge of the collections. A 
Sub-divisional Land Reforms Officer has been appointed in each 
sub-division who is in direct charge of the collection in the sub¬ 
division. At each thana level, a Junior Land Reforms Officer 
has been appointed. On the basis of the summary settlement 
report as staled in the previous para Tenants Ledger has been 
written showing the total amount of rent and the cesses to be 
realized from each tenant. For the purpose of actual collection 
liom the tenants, a number of tahsildars have been appointed 
usually one for each mouza of moderate size, more than one if 
the mouza is very big and occasionally a number of small mouzas 
are lumped together to be in charge of one tahsildar. The tahsil- 
dar grants rent receipts to the tenants on realization and from 
time to time, the amounts are credited to the Sub-divisional 
f reasuiy oi the District 1 reasury as the case may.be. Government- 
printed forms of rent receipts are used and a strict account of the 
number of rent receipt books issued to each tahsildar and the 
number actually utilised is kept in the office of the J.L.R.O. In 
case of default, the amounts are realisable by the Certificate pro- 


0 


Present 

collection 

system 


1 Hunter Statistical Analysis. Vol. IV, p. gyi. 

2 I lnal Report on the Survey and Settlement, 1924-31}. p. 74. • 


•* j 




380 


HlkBHUM 


Land Rciorms 

History of 
relationship 
between 
landlord and 
tenant 


cedure in accordance with the Bengal Public Demands Recovery 
Act. All the J.L.R.Os have been vested with the powers of a 
Certificate Officer. A table of collections from the years 1372 B.S. 
(1965-66) to 1376 B.S. (1969-70) is given in Appendix B. 

The-conception of private property in land is a very complicated 
one in India especially in Bengal. Radhakuimid Mukherjee' has 
shown that in the Vedic Age absolute property right of the actual 
tiller existed in the land. The institution of kingship grew out 
of *f* c necessity (or having a protector both against external 
agreession as well as against internal disputes. The first idea of 
payment ol a land revenue to the king arose out of the necessity of 
providing a remuneration for the king for his duties. The land 
revenue which thus started as a voluntary payment later on 
gradually took the shape of a right of the king on a share of the 
produce of the land. With the acknowledgement of the king’s 
right to a share oi the produce of the land arose the complicated 
questions on proprietory right over the land. A detailed examina¬ 
tion of this complex subject is not called for here and it may be 
sufficient to say that absolute proprietory right in land in Bengal 
rested with no single individual and each one from the actual 
tiller to the State had some right on it. Dr. R. G. Basak has 
shown in his article Land Sale Documents of Ancient Bengal" 
that in Bengal at least during the Gupta period the village com¬ 
mune had some ownership right on the land situated in the village. 
Sales ol such a land to an outsider required the consent of the 
village elders as well as a report as regards the transferability of 
the land from the village Record Keeper who was known as 
Pustapala. In the early revenue history of Bengal i.e. about the 
time of the accession of the Dewani by the East India Company 
we find a class of ryots were known as Khud-kast ryots. These 
ryots had occupancy rights on any land they cultivated in the 
village of their residence irrespective of the fact that the actual 
land cultivated by a Khud-kast ryot might change from year to 
year. I his special incident ol the Khud-kast ryot appears to have 
had its origin in the communal land revenue as referred to in the 
several copper plate land sale documents mentioned in Dr. Basak’s 
article. A finnan of Emperor Aurangzeb :! refers to this class of 

1 Indian Land System, Ancient, Mediaeval & Modern. 

Sit Asutosh Mukherjee Silver Jubilee Volumes: Vol % Part IT 
PP 475 - 496 . 3 ’ ' 

Harrington: Analysis, Vol. II, pp . 300-306. 


3 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


381 


ryots as Arbab-i-Zamin or proprietors of the land. The 13th 
clause of the said firman mentions that these ryots could sell a part - 
of his land which shows that their right of ownership in such 
lands was recognised by the Mughal Government. 

Much of the misunderstanding of the early British administra¬ 
tion briefly outlrned in the previous section arose because they 
took the existing conditions of revenue administration at the lime 
of the Dewani to be the Mughal administration of land in India. 
The fact remains that in Bengal the Mughal system was dead 
since the time of Murshid Kuli Khan (Jafl'ar Khan) when Abwabs 
began to be imposed gradually enhancing the payment to be made 
by the ryot beyond all reasonable bounds. The later Subahdars 
after the death of Emperor Auranzeb became practically indepen¬ 
dent of Delhi and throwing away all strings of good government 
to the wind and completely oblivious of the conditions of the 
peasantry started severe exactions. Such collections were made 
through the zamindars who in the nature of things then prevailing 
had a police force under them and could utilise their manifold 
power for good or for evil in enforcing realisation of any amount 
of rent from the tenants in their own way. The only redeeming 
feature existing in the then conditions was that the pressure of 
population on land was not so severe as now, and the ryots could 
flee away from a particularly severe zamindar and take land under 
one more benign. 1 

After the disastrous failure of the farming system introduced 
by Warren Hastings, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent 
Settlement in A.D. 1793. Lord Cornwallis’ plans were not obli¬ 
vious of the welfare of the ryots. It was declared that the rent 
of the Khud-kast ryot could not be enhanced and to Cornwallis’ 
mind it appeared that the provision of granting patta to the ryots 
would definitely secure the latter’s rights against the rapacity of 
the zamindars. In actual practice however it was the ryot him¬ 
self who mostly oppossed the issue of the Patta', as by this time 
after nearly sixty years rack-renting and torture the ryots had 
come to look upon every innovation with greatest suspicion. But 
whatever emphasis Lord Cornwallis laid in his plan- for the wel¬ 
fare of the ryots, the British administration in India after Lord 


The target of collections at the farming settlements, the target set at 
the annual settlements and the target at the Permanent Settlement 
were all sought to he justified by saying that the East India Company 
was fallowing the Mughal system. 


382 


BIRBHUM 


Anti-tenant 
legislation after 
Permanent 
Settlement 
from 17g-^ to 
1845 


Cornwallis practically shirked their responsibility. Section 58 of 
Regulation VIII, 1793 required the form of the patta to be 
approved by the Collector and the intention was that the latter 
will see that the rates were in conformity with the Nirikhbandi of 
the district. 1 But by Regulation IV, 1794 it was declared that even 
in the case of Khud-kast ryots, a dispute about tne rent £\ad to be 
referred to the Civil Court which further aggravated the suspicion 
of the ryots and created more enstrangement. Another plan of 
Lord Cornwallis was to appoint a ‘Patwari’ in every village to 
keep accounts and supplementary records and to produce these 
before the Collector for inspection. This was never resorted to 

and the good intention of Lord Cornwallis before long became a 
dead letter. 


While zammdaris began to be liquidated by revenue sales almost 
since the inception of the decennial settlement, the zamindars 
clamoured for more power to enforce collection of rent from their 
tenants. This led to the notorious fmptam regulation (Regulation 
II ol 1799) which authorised the zamindar to seize and sell the 
crops and chattels of the ryots in case of default of rent and power 
was given to the zamindar including their inferior employees to 
force their way into the houses of the tenants and seize their per¬ 
sonal properties. The Pancham Regulation (Regulation V of 
1712) in an attempt to give relief to the ryot actually made his 
position worse. It gave right to the ryot to stay the seizure of his 
crops by instituting a civil suit in the civil court. This was a very 
curious procedure contrary to all lenents of natural justice to 
reverse the normal procedure which requires the claimant first 
to prove his claim. Poor and helpless as the ryot was very few 
of them could take recourse to law against the rapacity of the 
zamindars. Another harsh provision that was made was in sec¬ 
tion 5 of Regulation XLIV of 1793 which provided that where 
the whole or a portion of a zamindari is sold at a revenue sale all 
tenancies of whatever description shall stand cancelled from the 
ay of sale. Though Justice Trevor in the Great Rent case in 
1865- declared that this provision could not affect the occupancy 
right of a Khud-kast ryot, there is no record of how many Khud- 
kast ryots were dispossessed or how many had to pay enhanced 
rent on their being allowed to continue in their tenancies till the 


iracim 0 " records existence of pargana rates whose historv is obscure 

kul'i^Khn 1 e P ar £ a ” a tCS P ractlca lly lapsed since tfie time of Murshid 
a ^ hen . Abwabs be £ a " ^ be superimposed on the rent 

BLR SS1 VS ’ Blshessor Mukherji (1865 full bench) 3 JV.R. 29; 


REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


383 


time of this judicial decision. In 1822 Regulation XI of 1822 all 
that was provided was that the purchaser at a revenue sale could 
not avoid the right of a Khud-kast Kadimi ryot. The use of the 
word Kadimi for the first time in this regulation seems to go upon 
the scheme of Cornwallis whose plan of Permanent Settlement 
envisaged protection of all Khud-kast ryots. The effect of Regula¬ 
tion XI of 1822 therefore was to protect only the rights of those 
Khud-kast ryots whose tenancies had subsisted from the time of 
the Decennial Settlement. Thus occupancy rights acquired after 
the date of the Decennial Settlement were not protected. A still 
further retrograde step was taken by Act I of 1845 and the pur¬ 
chaser at a revenue sale was given power to eject all ryots other 
than the Khud-kast Kadimi ryots. 

The first legislation to secure the right of the tenant was Act X 
of 1859 or the Rent Act. This act, while avoiding to define 
tenancy, conceived a classification of ryots into three classes (1) 
ryots at fixed rates, viz., those who could show that their rent had 
not changed for 20 years, and would be presumed to be holding 
at fixed rates from the time of the Permanent Settlement; (2) occu¬ 
pancy ryots who had cultivated or held land for a continuous 
period of 12 years; (3) Non-occupancy ryots, who had not culti¬ 
vated or held the land for 12 years. The Rent Act also laid down 
the fixed procedure for enhancement of the rent seeking thereby 
to limit arbitrary enhancements of the zamindars. Judicial pro¬ 
nouncement in the Rent Case of 1865' decided that in case of 
dispute the rent paid by the ryots previously shall be deemed to 
be fair and equitable unless the contrary is proved in a suit. The 
view that fair rent was economic rent as defined by Malthus was 
overruled. 

It has been stated earlier that during the Mughal administration 
Khud-kast ryots had the right to sell their land. This right was 
denied in the permanent Settlement as well as in the Bengal 
Tenancy Act 1885. It was not until 1928 that this right was 
recognised. 

The land system in Birbhum prior to the acquisition of the 
Intermidiary rights by the State may be briefly-mentioned here. 
The Zemindars with Patnidars, Dar-patnidars and Chhe-patnidars 
generally formed the class of landlords and under them came the 
ryots. The pattern of land holding as found in the Settlement 
operation of 1924-32 was as follows: 

i Thakooranee Dossi Vs. Bishessor Mukherji (1865 full bench, 3 W.R 
*9; BLR 2002. * 


384 

BIRBHUM 


Land in direct 
occupation of 

A rea 
( in acres ) 

Percentage of the entire 
area of the district 

Proprietors 

Tenure holders 
Ryots 

Under-ryots 

55,633.20 

163,174.09 

858,252.53 

21,326.75 

4.9871 

14.4316 

76.8352 
- 2.2131 


Only 12 per cent of the ryoti holdings was found to be held at 
fixed rents (Mokarari). But the whole of this meagre percentage 
cannot represent the old Khud-kast Kadimi holdings existing at the 
time of the Permanent Settlement. For, many of such Mokarari 
holdings were recorded as such by the presumption of section 50 
of the B.T. Act as the landlords failed to prove that there has been 
changes in the rent in these cases. This small percentage of 
Mokarari holdings found in 1934 clearly indicates that many of 
the Khud-kast ryots existing at the time of the Permanent Settle¬ 
ment were either evicted or had their rents enhanced after Revenue 
sales of estates. 

Service The most important of service tenures which is peculiar to this 

!cn:mries nd d,strict is the Ghatwali Tenure created by the Raja of Rajnagar. 

To save the kingdom from external aggression, the area was 
encircled by a wall and the entrances to the kingdom through 
openings in the wall were called ghats. The persons appointed to 
guard these ghats were the Ghatwals. Originally, there were 40 
such ghats. Two parganas, Sarhat and Deoghar, were transferred 
to Santal Perganas and Bisenpur was transferred to Bankura. 
After these transfers, 332 incumbents with 3,288 bighas in their 
possession remained to this district. As a definite service was 
expected of these ghatwals, these lands could not be treated as 
Lakheraj and could not be resumed under Regulation III of 1819. 
But the Ghatwals were eager to pay rent andAhus settle their 
possession. Accordingly, notwithstanding legal quibblings, these 
lands were resumed by the Government in 1898 and assessed to 
rent. The settlement was concluded with those in possession. 

I he average rate of rent was Rs. 2.75 per bigha and 35 new estates 
were formed with a total revenue demand of Rs. 3,059.37. 

The Chowkidari Chakran lands were originally land assigned by 
the village commune for duties of watch and ward in the village. 
Under the Muslim rule, the zemindar was entrusted with civil and 
criminal administration of their zemindari and the village watch- 




REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


385 


men were placed under the zemindar for sundry duties in con¬ 
nection with the collection of revenue as well. Regulation VIII 
of 1793 directed that these Chakran land be annexed to the 
Malguzari land of the zemindari. Finally, with the taking away 
of the police duties from the zemindars these lands were resumed 
by the Government and settled with the zemindars under Act VI 
of 1870.' 

A few peculiar service tenures may be mentioned. In 1755, 
Raja Asad-Uzzaman Khan granted about 325 bighas of land as 
rent free tenures to certain persons for rendering service as daftris 
in the office of the Raja. As this grant subsisted from before the 
permanent settlement, these chakran lands were not resumed till 
1928 and was entered in Register B Part III and treated as service 
lands under the Government. In village Shib Rautara, there was 
a service tenure created for praying to the gods for the welfare of 
the raja of Hetampur, while in Moulpur there was a service 
tenancy for driving monkeys out of the village. 

With effect from the date of vesting of the intermediary interests, 
all zemindari and tenures have been extinguished. The zemindar 
or the tenure holder has been permitted to retain all homesteads, 
land comprised in or appertaining to buildings and structures, non- 
agricultural land in the khas possession of the intermediary on the 
date of vesting, not exceeding fifteen acres and agricultural land 
in khas possession on the date of vesting to the extent of 25 acres. 
For all these lands the zemindar or intermediary has* been treated 
as a ryot under the State and assessed to rent. The previous ryoti 
and under-ryoti holdings have been converted as tenancies directly 
under the State and given ryoti status. All lakheraj holdings have 
been assessed to rent and all service tenure and tenancies resettled 
with the possessors and assessed to rent. Under the Land Re¬ 
forms Act, the ryot has been declared proprietor of his tenancy 
and the holding has been declared heritable and transferable. 

The Bengal Tenancy Act made a provision restricting the trans¬ 
fer of holdings of the Tribal people. These provisions have been 
elaborated and embodied in Chapter IIA of the Land Reforms 
Act. While a Scheduled Tribe ryot is proprietor of his tenancy 
and his tenancy remains heritable, transfer in any manner other 
than the following shall be void. The tenancy holding of a 
Scheduled Tribe ryot is transferable only in one of the following 


Present 
Status of 
the holdings 


Special 
provision 
with respect 
to Scheduled 
T ribes 


manners: 


386 


BIRBHUM 


Agrarian 

movement 


Administration 

of OTHER 

Sources of 
Revenue: 
Central and 
State 

Commercial 

Taxes 




(a) by complete usufructuary mortgage for a period not 
exceeding seven years to a person belonging to the same Scheduled 
Tribe to which the transferor belongs; 

(b) by sale or gift to the Government for a public or charitable 
purpose; 

(c) by simple mortgage to the Government or to a registered 
Co-operative Society; 

(d) by gift or will to a person belonging to the same Scheduled 
Tribe to which the transferor belongs, with previous written per¬ 
mission of the Revenue Officer containing the terms of the 
transfer; 

(e) by a complete usufructuary mortgage for a term not exceed¬ 
ing seven years to a person other than a member of the same 
Scheduled Tribe to which the transferor belongs or by sale or ex¬ 
change in favour of any person with the previous written permis¬ 
sion of the Revenue Officer. The Revenue Officer is enjoined to 
withhold his permission for transfer to a person other than one 
belonging to the same Tribe as the transferor unless he is satisfied 
that such a one is unavailable. As a further safeguard, it is 
provided that no court shall recognise any document executed 
contrary to the express provisions of this law. The holding of 
the Scheduled Tribe ryot has been declared exempt from sale in 
execution of any decree of a court. 

The only agrarian movement was the Santal rebellion of 1855. 
This did not strictly originate in this district but spread into it 
from the adjacent district of Santal Perganas. While dispossession 
from land by process of law was one of the causes of this uprising 
there were some other causes too. 1 It was quickly quelled and 
in the seventies of the last century Chhoto Nagpur Tenancy legisla¬ 
tion provided relief to the Santals and there has been no further 
uprisings. 

The Suri Charge Office under the directorate of the commercial 
taxes has started functioning from 13 October 1969. This charge 
office is responsible for the assessment for and collection of the 
commercial taxes under the Bengal Financial (Sales Tax) Act, 
1941, Bengal Motor Spirit Sales Taxation Act, 1941, West Bengal 
Sales Tax Act, 1954, Central Sales Tax Act, 1956 and Paddy 
Purchase Act, 1970. The following table indicates the number of 
registered dealers and collections under these Acts: 


1 vide CLapter XI. 


<0 


* « 


revenue administration 


No. of regis¬ 
tered dealers 


Collection (Rs.) 


Acts 

1969-70 

1970-71 

1969-70 

1970-71 

Bengal Finance' 

491 

551 

5,74,631 

19,45,913 

(Sales Tax) Act,. 
West Bengal Sales 
Tax Act 

Bengal Motor Spirit 

20 

23 

2,95,951 

8,65,592 

Sales Taxation Act 
Central Sales 

210 

218 

8,483 

28,662 

Tax Act 

Paddy Purchase Act 

60 

70 

4,13,921 

12,90,148 


A statement of revenue collected (in Rs.) against different 
excise articles from 1961-62 to 1970-71 is given in Appendix C. 

The number of assessees, amount of demand and collection Agncul ural 

under the Bengal Agricultural Income Tax Act, 1944 are given 
below: 


y ear Assessees Demand Collection 

(Rs.) (Rs.) 

1965- 66 1.316 1,30,811 1,22,223 

1966- 67 1.305 1,11,793 1,16,215 

1967- 68 1.288 1,79,382 1,91,749 

1968- 69 1,307 2,50,534 2,02,533 

1969- 70 1,264 2,70,259 2,25,359 

Number of assessees, demand raised and collection made in Income Tax 
respect of income tax in the district from 1961-62 to 1969-70 are 
given below: 

Year Assessees Demand Collection 

• (Rs.) (Rs.) 

1961- 62 1,624 10,18,000 4,24,000 

1962- 63 1,633 9,92,000 6,80,000 

1963- 64 2,106 9,38,000 . 6,42,000 

1964- 65 3,313 8,03,000 6,19,000 

1965- 66 3,189 8,22,000 5,83,000 

1966- 67 2,858 10,43,000 7,93,000 

1967- 68 3,360 11,31,000 6,89,000 

1968- 69 3,341 17,54,000 9,37,000 

1969- 7t) 3,496 18,78,000 14,^5,000 


Assessees 

Demand 

Collection 


(Rs.) 

(Rs.) 

1,624 

10,18,000 

4,24,000 

1,633 

9,92,000 

6,80,000 

2,106 

9,38,000 

. 6,42,000 

3,313 

8,03,000 

6,19,000 

3,189 

8,22,000 

5,83,000 

2,858 

10,43,000 

7,93,000 

3,360 

11,31,000 

6,89,000 

3,341 

17,54,000 

9,37,000 

3,496 

18,78,000 

14^5,000 


ABSTRACT ACCOUNT OF THE DECREASE IN THE SETTLEMEENT OF THE DEWANNY LANDS, FROM 1169 TO 1172, 

INCLUSIVE; OR FROM APRIL 1762 TO APRIL, 1765, INCLUSIVE 




G 



Land Revenue Collections in Birbhum District: 1965-70 




* . • 




REVENUE ADMINISTRATION 


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H 


CHAPTER XI 


LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


Situated on the extreme western border of the province of 
Bengal and verging on the hills and fastnesses of Chota Nagpur, 
Birbhum area during the Mughal days was prone to the attacks 
of marauders from the west. During the Mughal administration, 
when the zemindars were the keepers of law and order within 
the zemindari and protectors of the people from external aggres¬ 
sion, the Birbhum zemindary was created as a sort of military 
tenure by Murshid Kuli Khan, the Subahdar of Bengal. The 
Birbhum Raja, holding the zemindari partly as a semi-independent 
chief and partly as a military fief-holder was responsible for 
the defence of the western frontier. For the purpose of guarding 
the frontiers, the Raja of Birbhum created the ghatwali tenures 
and settled for the most part mercenary soldiers hailing from 
upper India, both Rajputs and Afghans. A thanadari police was 
also created by the Raja and the zemindari was divided into 
several thanas where a number of troopers and foot soldiers 
were stationed under a thanadar. The main function of this 
police was to collect rents but at times they performed the 
duties of protectors of law and order. 

Whatever might have been the military abilities of Asadulla 
Khan, the zemindar who received the military fief, the Raja of 
Birbhum about the time the English assumed the Dewany was 
a decrepit man unable to sit on his seat due to a painful disease 
and far less able to ride a horse and lead his army. The result 
was that Birbhum fell an easy prey to the marauders. In 1785, 
the Collector of Murshidabad, under whose jurisdiction Birbhum 
lay, wrote to tjie Governor-General asking for troops to act 
against the bands of plunderers ravaging Birbhum. By about 
June 1785, the marauders were reported to be one thousand 
strong and preparing for an organised attack of the tract. Next 
year, the brigands were in occupation of Birbhum and established 
in strong positions with permanent camps. The public revenue 
was looted on the way and the trade and commerce of the 
East India Company came to a stand still. G. R. Foley, a 
civil officer of the East India Company was posted to Birbhum to 
assist the Raja in fighting the marauders. No records are avail¬ 
able of*what Foley did at Birbhum. But Cornwallis wg$ by now 



c. _ 


t 




Santal 
uprising 
of i855 


i/ 


BIRBHUM 

convinced that Birbhum could never be freed from plunderers 
' so !°ng it remained a remote dependency of Murshidabad. 
Accordingly, in 1787, Birbhum and Vishnupur were made into 
a compact district. The first Collector was Pye but he soon 
relinquished his charge and was succeeded by Sherburne on 
29 April 1787. Sherburne removed the headquarters from 
Vishnupur to Suri. The defence of the country was taken up 
by the Collector and the Raja relieved of his responsibility. The 
larger bodies of marauders were promptly broken up but they 
dispersed into the neighbouring areas and in October 1787 a 
Birbhum treasuie party was attacked and overpowered on the 
south of the Ajay and silver currency worth £3000/- carried 
off by the dacoits. It remained for Christopher Keating who 
succeeded Sherburne on 29 October 1788 to bring order in the 
district. From February 1789 to June 1789 Keating fought more 
than one pitched battle with the marauders. While Keating 
somehow protected Birbhum by guarding the passes through 
which the marauders entered, the latter made a detour and cross¬ 
ing the Ajay reached Vishnupur where the Raja had been 
imprisoned for failure to pay the land revenue and there was 
disorder. The people in sympathy with the Raja did nothing 
to help the government to fight the marauders and an English 
factory was burnt. In the rainy season the marauders retreated 
to their strongholds leaving a guard at Vishnupur. Keating 
then applied to the Governor-General for assistance by picked 
men from the legular army. A detachment of regular military 
lorce was sent with which six important passes were guarded. 
But during the winter of 1789, the bandits still had the upper 
hand and on 5th June following, Rajnagar, the capital of the' 
Raja of Birbhum. was sacked by the bandits. During the winter 
of 1788-89, Keating secured all the passes against the entry of 
the marauders and the bandits, unable to find an entrance into 
Birbhum, made a detour and collected on the bank of the Ajay. 
Here the forces of Keating with the support of the local people 
ultimately finished them off. 

From the middle of 1790 till the Santal uprising in- 1855 the 
district was more or less peaceful. 

The famine of 1771 which carried away a third of the population 
of Bengal upset the equilibrium between population and cultivable 
land. Large areas of fertile and once productive land fell out 
of tillage and reverted to jungles harbouring wild beasts of all 
descriptions. The permanent settlement of 1790 assessed the 


* 



LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


393 


revenue on the zemindars at nine-tenths of the hastabood of all - 
lands in the zemindari, irrespective of cultivation. I o meet this 
heavy demand on revenue, the zemindars had to seek cultivators 
for the waste lands. The Santals of the adjacent area could 
easily be induced to come and settle upon the waste lands and 
lands laid waste by lack of cultivators after the famine. The 
Santal is by nature a good and industrious cultivator and a 
hunter. The waste lands of Birbhum offered him not only culti¬ 
vation but also a fertile hunting ground. Gradually, the Santal 
settlements prospered. This prosperity attracted greedy merchants 
and money-lenders to the Santal villages and in every business- 
deal the simple-minded and ignorant Santal was cheated. Once 
a Santal borrowed money or grain from the money-lender, he and 
his family became a serf to him. However much he may toil 
to repay his debt, the money-lender still had a claim on him 
and when he attempted to run away to escape his extortion, the 
money-lender would bring a suit and obtain a decree behind 
his back and seize all his cattle and crop. The poor and ignorant 
Santal would have accepted his lot of serfdom and partial slavery 
to Capital, had not another thing changed the course of events. 
In 1854, it was decided to construct the Railway and that gave 
work and wages at a scale hitherto unknown to the Santal. The 
industrious Santals worked on the Railway construction and 
secured an amount of wealth unthinkable before. The Santal 
then realised that he need not suffer the serfdom and slavery 
to Capital any longer. The influx of money had raised the 
prices of grains. An excellent harvest gathered in the winter of 

1854 had fetched a good price and the economic condition of 
the Santals had improved. Still, the cold season of 1854 and 

1855 found the Santals in a strangely restless state. 

Oppressions seldom go unresisted, and the Santals, gradually 

realising the c^use of their increasing debts and poverty, were 
thinking of means to put an end to their troubles. Before the 
beginning of the insurrection, the Parganaits and Manjhis of 
different Santal villages were cogitating in right earnest about 
the means to put an end to the troubles. To people in such a 
frame of mind leaders are seldom wanting. Two brothers, Kanhu 
and Sidu, inhabitants of a village long oppressed by the usury 
of the money-lenders, stood forth as deliverers of the Santals 
claiming their right to lead the people to divine inspiration. The 
god of the Santals, they claimed, appeared before them on 
seven 'successive days; at first as a white man in the Santal’s 



394 


BIRBHUM 


^ costume, then as a flame of fire with a knife glowing in the 
flame, then as a perforated trunk of the Sal tree which forms 
the hub of the bullock cart wheel of the Santal. The god 
delivered to the brothers a sacred book. Slips of paper, which 
the brothers claimed were showered down from the skv, were 
spread throughout the Santal country. The leaders then petitioned 
the Superintendent* to do them justice adding that their god 
had commanded them to wait no longer. The Superintendent 
knew nothing of the people or their wrongs. A petition to the 
Commissioner of Bhagalpur division had almost the same fate. 
The officers of the East India Company were content so long 
as the revenue came in and had no inclination either to know 
the people or appreciate what their trouble was. The peace- 
loving Santals who had long submitted to the oppressions had 
expected that their wrongs would be remedied by the English 
rulers. When nothing came out of their petitions to them, the 
unsophisticated people unaccustomed to fight for their own rights 
in a legitimate manner rose in a body to right their wrongs. 
The Santal national emblem, the Sal twig, was sent to every 
Santal village and the people obedient to the signal assembled 
with their inseparable bows and arrows in expectation of some¬ 
thing happening. On 30 June 1855, a vast expedition was on 
the move with the apparent object of reaching Calcutta and 
laying their grievances before the Governor-General in Calcutta. 
Tnc bi others Kanhu and Sidu had raised a storm which they 
had not the capacity to control. At first, the movement was not 
anti-British nor anti-government. So long the meagre provisions 
bi ought by the people lasted, the expeditioners were peaceful. 
But soon the stocks were finished and then arose the necessity 
of securing further provisions either by loot or by benevolence. 
The oppressors of the Santals became panic-stricken and they 
bribed a police daroga and Naib Sezawal of thjma Dighee in 
the district of Bhagalpur by the name of Mahesh Dutta to 
arrest the two brothers on a false charge of burglary. Mahesh 
Dutta started with his men but was intercepted midway by 
emissaries of Kanhu and Sidu and escorted to their camp. 
Mahesh Dutta perhaps lost his nerve and admitted that he had 
come to arrest the brothers on a false charge. The two brothers 
said that if he had proof against them he may bind them. The 

An uncovenanted officer appointed by the East India Company as 
Superintendent of Santal Settlements in Damin-i-Koh, which later Jbecame 
the Santal perganas. Damin-i-Koh then included a portion of Birbhum. 


LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


395 


foolhardy police officer then ordered his men to bind the brothers. 
No sooner was the order out of his mouth, than the whole mass J 
of Santals fell upon him and his men and they were bound. 
After a hurried trial Sidu killed Mahesh Dutta with his own 
hands. From this date, 7 July 1855, the expedition took the 
character of an insurrection, and want drove the Santals to 
plunder. Paisa to the north of the district and Mrityunjaypur 
and Narayanpur to the north-west of Rampurhat were sacked 
and Suri was threatened. The Government at once despatched 
troops but the rains had set in rendering march difficult. Major 
Vincent Jervis was sent from Barrackpur to relieve Suri. The 
details of the battles between the Santal insurgents, an untrained 
band of people armed only with bows and arrows and some 
battle-axes and a trained military armed with fire-arms and led 
by able commanders, would be painful reading. In this unequal 
war-fare the Santals were soon defeated with severe loss of life 
and peace returned to the district by August 1855. 

The total number of crimes reported in the district in 1872 
was 3,356. The number of crimes reported was 4,528 in 1961 
and 3,339 in 1962, 3,629 in 1963, 3,175 in 1965. Thus, after a 
lapse of 88 to 91 years the total number of crimes reported did 
not increase appreciably. In 1968, there was a sharp increase in 
the number of crimes reported and the number was 8,822 in that 
year. Almost all types of crimes increased during this year. 
But leaving out the figures of 1968 (which might have been due 
to extraneous causes like political uncertainty), the figures of 
the years from 1962 when compared with the figures of 1872 
show that Birbhum was on the whole a peaceful district as 
regards criminal offences. Some of the principal offences and 
their incidence may be discussed. 

The number of dacoities including robberies reported in 1961 
and 1962 were 9 cases in each year. The number started rising 
from 1963 in which year there were 24 cases. In 1966, there 
were 36 cases. The number fell to 18 in 1967, but rose to 
22 again in 1968. The figures do not show any pattern and 
these offences are sporadic. 

Theft cases numbered 1,003 in 1961, 1,077 in 1964, 1,066 in 
1966, but rose to 1,659 in 1967 and 2,515 in 1968. The lowest 
figure was 785 in 1965. The rise in the number of thefts during 
1967 and 1968 is in consonance with the general increase in 
the number of crimes in these two years. 

The” number of cases of rape steadily rose from 196J to 1968. 


Present 
incidence 
OF CRIMES 


Dacoity 

and 

robbery 


Theft 


Rape 





396 


B1RBHUM 


Offences 

against 

public 

tranquillity 


Offences 

affecting 

life 


In 1961, there were only 2 cases, in 1962 there were 3 cases. In 
° 1965, the number rose to 9 and in 1968 the figure was 25. 

The figures of offences against public tranquillity illustrate 
the general increase in lawlessness in the district during 1968. 
In 1961, there were 348 offences reported under this head. The 
figure varied between 200 in 1964 and 360 in 1966. In 1968, 
the number of offences under this head suddenly increased to 
1,218. 

Offences of murder and culpable homicide numbered 19 in 
1961. The figure rose to 50 in 1964, but fell to 32 in 1966. 
In 1968, it again rose to 50. 


The history of the gradual development of the police under 
the Government from 1765 to 1861 has been given in Chapter IX. 
In 1908, the district was divided into nine police thanas and 
five outposts as given below. 1 


Sub-division 


Thanas 

Outposts 

Suri 

1 . 

Bolpur 

Ilambazar 


2. 

Dubrajpur 

Khayrasol 


3. 

Labhpur 



4. 

Sakulipur 



5. 

Suri 

Mahammed Bazar 
Rajnagar 

Sainthia 

Rampurhat 

6. 

Mayureswar 



7. 

Murarai 



8. 

Nalhati 



9. 

Rampurhat 



The regular police force in the district in 1908 consisted of 
one Superintendent of Police, 5 Inspectors, 28 Sub-Inspectors, 
26 Head Constables, and 239 Constables. The total force, num¬ 
bering 299 men, worked out at one police-man for 5.8 square 
miles of area and for 3,017 of the inhabitants of the district. 
The Rural Police consisted of 172 Dafadars and 2,561 Chaukidars. 
A large proportion of the Rural Police was remunerated by 
Chaukidari Chakran lands till these were resumed. 2 

1 L. S. S. O’Malley—Bengal District Gazetteers, Birbhum, Calcutta 1910, 
p. 96. 

2 Vide, Chapter X. * 



LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


397 


The present police organisation in the district consists of a 
Superintendent of Police assisted by two Deputy Superintendents 
of Police for the Sadar Sub-division and one Deputy Superintendent 
of Police (styled the Sub-divisional Police Officer) for the 
Rampurhat Sub-division. The following table gives the distri¬ 
bution of Inspectors, Sub-Inspectors, Assistant Sub-Inspectors and 
Constables. 


Police 

Station 

Inspector 

Sub- 

Inspector 

Asstt. Sub- 
Inspector 

Constable 

Suri 

1 

3 

3 

18 

Rajnagar 


1 

1 

8 

Mahammad Bazar 


1 

1 

8 

Sainthia 


2 

2 

10 

Dubrajpur 


3 

2 

12 

Khayrasol 


2 

2 

12 

I lam bazar 


2 

2 

12 

Bolpur 

1 

3 

4 

12 

Labhpur 


1 

1 

8 

Nanur 


1 

1 

8 

Mayureswar 


3 

2 

12 

Rampurhat 

1 

3 

4 

18 

Nalhati 


2 

2 

10 

Murarai 


2 

2 

10 

Other personnel 
below: 

of the police force 

are given in 

the table 

Placement 

Inspector 

Sub- 

Inspector 

Asstt. Sub- 
Inspector 

Constable 

Courts 

1 

6 

10 

19 

D.I.B. 

1 

6 

8 

39 

D.E.B. 

1 

6 

2 

10 

Reserve (casualty) 

— 

3 . 

— 

62 

Indo-Pak Passport 

— 

3 

2 

5 

Miscellaneous 

— 

6 

1 

26 

Armed Police 

1 

2 

— 

173 

Town Out-post 

— 

— 

1 

76 

Cordoning 

1 

3 

27 

— 

Anti-sifiuggling 

1 

25 

— 

o 36 


398 


BIRBHUM 


Govt. 

Railway 

1 ’olice 


% 


Besides, there were 1 J.C.O. for town Out-Post, 26 Head 
J Constables (1 for courts, 19 for Armed Police, 6 for Town Out- 
Post), 14 Naiks for Armed Police and 1 Constable for S.D.P.O. s 


office, Rampurhat. 

The sanctioned staff of the Government Railway 

Police in the 

district for the period from 

1967-69 was 

as follows: 


Place of Posting 

Sub- 

Ins¬ 

pector 

Asstt. 

Sub-Ins¬ 

pector 

Head 

Constable 

Constable 

Sainthia G.R.P.S. 

1 

1 

— 

6 

Sainthia Platform 

— 

— 

— 

4 

Bolpur Platform 

— 

— 

1 

6 

Nalhati Platform 

— 

— 

1 

3 

Rampurhat Platform 

— 

— 

1 

3 

_A- J 


The following is the yearwise statement of crimes reported 
under the jurisdiction of Sainthia Government Railway Police 
Station: 

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 


Theft from wagons 
of running goods 
trains 

Theft from wagons 
stacked in yards 
Theft from passenger 
trains 

Pick-pocketing 
Theft from Rly. 
station platform, 
waiting-and bath¬ 
rooms, etc. 

Rioting 
Obstruction to 
passenger trains 
by passengers 
Obstruction to 
goods trains by 
criminals 
Cheating 
Thefts from Rly. 
goods shads 


27 24 6 10 

117 1 

23 15 13 14 

8 9 4 6 

23 24 12 17 

12 8 — 


2 3 18 

117 8 

4 7 13 14 

2 18 1 

7 10 17 32 

2 15 5 

— 1 -9 — 

1 1 — — 

— — r — 


LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


399 


Besides, there were cases of dacoity, robbery, burglary and 
murder also. During the period from 1961 to 1968, the relevant 
figures were— 1 dacoity from goods train in 1962, 1 robbery 
from passenger train in 1964, 1 robbery from railway tracks in 
1965 and 2 robberies from passenger trains in 1968; 1 burglary 
in 1962; 2 murders from railway jurisdiction in 1961, 1 murder 
from railway jurisdiction in 1964 and 1 murder from railway 
jurisdiction in 1967. 

The organisation of the Home Guards was created in the 
wake of the Chinese aggression in 1962 for the purpose of 
keeping up the morale of the people in case of external aggres¬ 
sion. The members of this organisation were given training in 
discipline, use of fire-arms, civil defence works such as rescue, 
first-aid and fire-fighting. Some selected members were given 
training in map reading, handling of automatic weapons, opera¬ 
tion of Wireless sets, etc. In case of need the Home Guards 
were to act as auxiliary to the police and generally help in 
maintaining internal security and render assistance to the people 
in cases of air raids, fire havocs, etc. They were also to perform, 
if called upon, tasks in connection with the maintenance of 
essential services like transport, fire-service, water supply and 
power installations. The following is a thanawise distribution 
of Home Guards as it stood on 31 March 1969. 


HOME GUARDS 


Police 



Station 

Rural 

Urban 

Suri 

151 

113- 

Rajnagar 

58 

— 

Mahammad Bazar 

41 

— 

Sainthia 

165 

— 

Dubrajpur 

114 

— 

Khayrasol 

73 

— 

Ilambazar 

79 

54 

Bolpur 

78 

54 

Labhpur 

117 

— 

Nanur 

114 

— 

Mayureswar 

117 

— 

Rampurhat 

179 

84 

Nalhati 

145 

— 

Murarai 

140 

— 


Ouasi- 

police 

organisation 

Elome 

Guards 


L 


o - (J 


National 

Volunteer 

Force 


Excise 

Administration 


B1RBHUM 

The National Volunteer Force, is an organisation with personnel 
c recruited from the local people, who volunteer their service on 
a part-time basis. The National Volunteer Force in the district 
as on 31 March 1969 was headed by an Assistant Company 
Commander. He has under him five platoons of Volunteer 
Force, the details of which are given below: 


Platoon No. 
with Head 

0 


quarters 

Jurisdiction 

Strength 

Suri 

Suri, Dubrajpur, Ilambazar, Maham- 
mad Bazar, Rajnagar, Bolpur and 



part of Sainthia Police Station 

49 

Kirnahar 

Kirnahar, Nanur and part of 


Bolpur police station 

61 

Labhpur 

Labhpur 

49 

Rampurhat 

Rampurhat, Mayureswar 

63 

Nalhati 

Nalhati, Murarai, Lohapur 

56 


The members of the force were mainly called for food cordoning 
operation. 1 hey were also employed for some emergencies, loan 
collection and election. 

I or the purpose of excise administration, there is only one 
range in the district, divided into seven circles with headquarters 

at Suri, Bolpur, Dubrajpur, Labhpur, Rampurhat, Sainthia and 
Nalhati. 

1 he District Collector is the head of the exise administration. 
Fie is assisted by a Superintendent of Excise. Besides, there 
is an Inspector of Excise, 10 Sub-Inspectors of Excise, 4 Assistant 
Sub-Inspectors of Excise and 49 Constables. The following table 
would indicate the number of licences issued in the district. 

NO. OP EXCISE LICENCES ISSUED IN BIRBHUM DISTRICT: 1961-68 
Name of Excise 

articles for the 0 

sale of which 
licences were 


issued 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

PACHWAI 

237 

237 

237 

237 

237 

237 

237 

237 

G. S. 

25 

25 

31 

31 

31 

31 

30 

30 

Ganja 

32 

32 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

29 

Bhang 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

F. L. 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

T, 

3 

Tari 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 

16 




J 


J J 


law and order and justice 4U 

There is no area under prohibition within the State. But the 
excise and opium shops are to be kept closed on the indepen- , 
dence Day, Mahatma Gandhi’s Birth Day, the Republic Day 
and Mahashtami Day. The licensees of these shops have a o 
the option to keep their shops closed on these days. Netajis 
Birthday, Rathajatra, Janmashtami, Saraswati Puja, Ramnayami. 
Id-ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Fateha-Duaz-Doham, Muharram, Jagaddhatn 

Puja, and the First of Baisakh. 

A history of the development and organisation of the courts 

for Criminal justice has been given in Chapter IX. ere as 
been a separation of the executive and judicial work m the 
district from 18 June 1971. On the executive side, the District 
Magistrate heads the Magistracy. A Deputy Magistrate wi 
powers of a Magistrate of the First Class is the Sub-divisional 
Magistrate for the Sadar Sub-division, while another Deputy 
Magistrate with first class powers is posted as Additional Sub- 
divisional Magistrate at Bolpur. There are two Sub-Deputy 
Magistrates with first class powers at Sun for the Sadar Sub¬ 
division. At Rampurhat a Deputy Magistrate with first class 
powers is the Sub-divisional Magistrate with one Sub-Deputy 
Magistrate with second class powers and one Sub-Deputy 
Magistrate with third class powers to assist. 

The judicial side of the Criminal administration is headed by 
the Sessions Judge with an Additional Sessions Judge. There is 
a Sub-divisional Judicial Magistrate at Suri for the Sadar Sub¬ 
division with another Judicial Magistrate. One Judicial Magistrate 
is stationed at Bolpur. At Rampurhat, there is one Sub-divisional 
Judicial Magistrate with another Judicial Magistrate. 

The number and nature of cases handled has been briefly 
discussed in the foregoing section. The details appear in the 

statement in the Appendix to the Chapter. 

No Panchayat Adalat has yet started functioning m the 

district. 

The entire district constitutes one Judgeship headed by a 
District Judge stationed at Suri the head-quarters of the distrie' 
There is an Additional District Judge, also stationed at Su.i, 
with identical powers and jurisdiction. Besides, there is one 
Subordinate Judge and a Munsif and an Additional Munsif all 
stationed at Suri. The Subordinate Judge is empowered to try 
Small Causes Court suits of the value up to Rs. 750/- and to 


Organisation 
of rHE 
Criminal 
Courts 


Panchayat 

Adalat 

Organisation 
OF THE 
Civil Courts 


26 


o 





0 


BIRBHUM 


Jails and 

LOCK-UPS 


try money and other suits of unlimited value over Rs. 5,000/- 
arising within the Sadar Munsifi, Dabrajpur Munsifi and 
Rampurhat Munsifi and over Rs. 7,500/- arising within the 
Bolpur Munsifi. The senior Munsif at Suri is empowered to 
try suits up to the value of Rs. 5.000/- and the Additional Munsif 
exercises identical powers. None of the Munsifs at Suri has 
been vested with powers to try Small Causes Court suits. 

At Bolpur, there are two Munsifs. The senior Munsif at 
Bolpur is empowered to try suits up to the value of Rs. 7,500/- 
and to try Small Causes Court suits up to the value of 
Rs. 300/-. The junior Munsif of Bolpur is empowered to try 
suits up to the value of Rs. 5,000/- but is not empowered to 
try Small Causes Court suits. One Munsif is posted at Dubrajpur 
and is empowered to try suits up to the value of Rs. 5,000/- 
but is not empowered to try Small Causes Court suits. 

There are two Munsifs at Rampurhat. The senior Munsif is 
empowered to try suits up to the value of Rs. 5,000/- and to 
try Small Causes Court suits up to the value of Rs. 300/-. The 
junior Munsif of Rampurhat is empowered to try suits up to 
the value of Rs. 5,000/- but is not empowered to try Small 
Causes Court suits. 

The District Judge and the Additional District Judge also 
act as Sessions Judge and Additional Sessions Judge respectively. 
The subordinate Judge acts as Assistant Sessions Judge. 

There are two jails in the district, the District Jail at Suri 
and the Sub-jail at Rampurhat. The accommodation of the 
District Jail is for 288 prisoners, while the Sub-jail at Rampurhat 
has accommodation for 18 prisoners. 

The District Jail is under a Superintendent. Besides, there are 
1 Jailor, 1 Deputy Jailor, 1 Medical Officer, 1 Compounder, 3 Male 
Nurses, 1 Teacher, 4 Head Warders, 48 Male Warders and 1 
Female Warder. The Sub-divisional Officer of Rampurhat is 
the ex-officio Superintendent of the Sub-jail. Besides, there is 
1 Sub-jailor, 2 Head Warders and 6 Warders. 

The Sub-jail does not keep any convicted person suffering 
imprisonment for more than a month. These prisoners are 
sent to the District Jail after conviction. The Sub-jail is essentially 
a lock-up for undertrial prisoners. Convicts are only kept here 
in cases where the convict is under trial in some other case in 
Rampurhat court. No juvenile prisoner nor any political prisoner 
is kept in the Sub-jail. In the District Jail also political prisoners 



LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


403 


and juvenile delinquents are not ordinarily kept, but are trans-. 
ferred to Special Jails under orders of the Government. 

The important reforms introduced in the prison administration 
and discipline at Suri are as follows: 

1. Compulsory adult education has been introduced. There 
are paid teachers for the purpose and convict teachers, 
when available, also assist. 

2. Convicts get wages for the labour they perform under the 
Wages System introduced in the Jail. 

3. Stripes in the Jail dress has been abolished and the obliga¬ 
tion to wear the identity disc has been done away with. 

4. The previous practice of clipping the hair short has been 
discontinued. 

5. A library has been provided for the use of the prisoners. 

6. A Radio set is provided in the Tuberculosis ward of the 
Jail and a separate library has been provided in this 
ward. 

7. Prisoners are allowed the facility of taking part in 
Bratachari dance and other cultural functions. 

8. Prisoners addicted to smoking are allowed to smoke at 
their own cost (labour wages earned) up to a limited 
extent. 

9. Hand fans are provided to all categories of prisoners in 
summer. 

10. Well-behaved prisoners are allowed to play on musical 
instruments on Sundays and Jail-holidays. 

11. Prisoners willing to appear in examinations held by the 
Board of Secondary Education or Universities are allowed 
the facilities for prosecuting their studies and appearing 
at the examinations. 

12. Improved facilities have been given for interview with 
relatives ‘and for writing letters. 

In the Sub-jail at Rampurhat all the above facilities are given, 
except items 1, 5, 6, 7 and 11. 

There are non-official visitors for both the District Jail and 
the Sub-jail. 


404 


BIRBHUM 


<D C/3 

X V 
CJ 

£ 5 

"2 ta 

§ ° 

U- 

X) 

c ^ 

° s 
•8 «2 
i: o 


00 

CM 

CM 

o 

NO 

rs 

OO 


z 1 

oc 

m 

NO 


oo 


r~-' 


r-~~ 

nO 

On 


o 

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408 BIRBHUM 

APPENDIX B 

MAJOR OFFENCES 

Dismissed, under 
section 203, 



Offences 

criminal procedure Returned 

Brought 

Year 

reported 

Code 

as true 

to trial 


Against the public tranquillity 

(Chapter VIII) 

1961 

348 

30. 

318 

214 

1962 

291 

10 

281 

153 

1963 

278 

13 

265 

221 

1964 

200 

3 

197 

146 

1965 

280 

12 

268 

244 

1966 

360 

— 

306 

164 

1967 

254 

12 

242 

142 

1968 

1218 

15 

1203 

455 


Contempts of the 

lawful authority 
( Chapter X) 

of public servants 

1961 

47 

— 

47 

47 

1962 

23 

— 

23 

17 

1963 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1964 

41 

— 

41 

36 

1965 

59 

— 

59 

59 

1966 

68 

— 

68 

50 

1967 

47 

■— 

47 

47 

1968 

47 

— 

47 

— 

Affecting the public health, safety, convenience, 
and morals ( Chapter XIV) 

decency 

1961 

6 

— 

6 

6 

1962 

36 

— 

36 

32 

1963 

41 

— 

41 

41 

1964 

41 

— 

41 

38 

1965 

21 

— 

21 

21 

1966 

29 

— 

29 

29 

1967 

72 

— 

72 

72 

1968 

27 

— 

27 

* 26 


C 


c 


c 


t 

« 

% 

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. * LAW 

AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 

409 



APPENDIX B ( Contd .) 





Dismissed under 


0 




section 203, 





Offences 

criminal procedure Returned 

Brought 


Year 

repotted 

Code 

as true 

to trial 




Affecting Life 



£ 

1961 

19 

— 

19 

17 


1962 

22 

•—- 

22 

19 


1963 

31 

— 

31 

20 


1964 

50 

— 

50 

34 


1965 

48 

1 

47 

45 


1966 

32 

2 

30 

24 


1967 

43 

— 

43 

43 


1968 

50 

1 

49 

49 




Hurt 




1961 

1,215 

102 

1,113 

717 


1962 

1,095 

201 

894 

581 


1963 

776 

187 

589 

415 


1964 

1,003 

79 

924 

664 


1965 

812 

50 

762 

674 


1966 

1,029 

80 

949 

312 


1967 

1,541 

101 

1,440 

765 


1968 

2,094 

131 

1,963 

925 



Wrongful restraint and wrongful confinement 



1961 

54 

20 

34 

20 


1962 

78 

9 

69 

23 


1963 

61 

10 

51 

45 


1964 

39 

4 

35 

20 


1965 

77 

7 

70 

58 


1966 

91 

6 

85 

63 


1967 

47 

9 

38 

38 


1968 

186 

14 

~ 172 

158 



Criminal force and assault 



1961 

205 

24 

181 

107 


1962 v 

217 

17 

200 

97 



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410 


BIRBHUM 


APPENDIX B (Contd.) 

Dismissed under 
section 203, 

Offences criminal procedure Returned Brought 
reported Code as true to trial 


1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 


205 

13 

52 

9 

35 

5 

129 

22 

101 

25 

195 

23 


192 

171 

43 

30 

30 

27 

107 

70 

75 

75 

172 

150 


Kidnapping, forcible abduction, slavery and forced labour 


1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 


1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 


1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 


3 

1 

5 

12 

19 

18 

24 

35 


2 

3 

4 
7 
9 

5 
9 

25 


1,003 

907 

928 

1,077 

785 

1,066 


— 

3 

— 

1 

— 

5 

2 

10 

1 

18 

— 

18 

— 

24 

3 

32 

Rape 

— 

2 

— 

3 

— 

4 

■— 

7 

— 

9 

— 

5 

1 

8 

— 

25 

Theft 

231 

772 

84 

823 

72 

856 

45 

1,032 

48 

737 

151 

915 


3 

1 

3 

5 
14 

6 
24 
20 


2 

3 

4 - 

7 
9 
4 

8 
13 


443 

500 

691 

781 

447 

534 



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1 


* LAW 

• 

AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 

411 



APPENDIX B ( Contd.) 





Dismissed under 






section 203, 





Offences 

criminal procedim 

? Returned 

Brought 


Year 

reported 

Code 

as true 

to trial 


1967 

9 

1,659 

113 

1,546 

922 


1968 

2,515 

226 

2,289 

1,131 

) 


Robbery and dacoity 



1961 

9 

— 

9 

9 

' 

1962 

9 

1 

8 

7 


1963 

24 

— 

24 

16 


1964 

26 

1 

25 

18 


1965 

30 

1 

29 

26 


1966 

36 

1 

35 

20 


1967 

18 

1 

17 

17 


1968 

22 

— 

22 

22 



Crim inal misappropriat ion 



1961 

36 

10 

26 

24 


1962 

16 

7 

9 

8 


1963 

20 

2 

18 

15 


1964 

26 

5 

21 

14 


1965 

18 

6 

12 

12 


1966 

26 

5 

21 

19 


1967 

128 

6 

122 

72 


1968 

115 

1 

114 

113 



Criminal breach of 

trust 



1961 

63 

21 

42 

40 


1962 

55 

2 

53 

47 


1963 

78 

3 

75 

45 


1964 

58 

5 

53 

32 


1965 

24 

— 

24 

24 


1966 

57 

5 

52 

23 


1967 

69 

24 

45 

45 


1968 

O 

170 

10 

160 

149 

v 

< 







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t 



k 


412 BIRBHUM 

APPENDIX B (Contd.) 

Dismissed under 
section 203, 



Offences c 

criminal procedure Returned 

Brought 

Year 

reported 

Code 

* as'true 

to trial 


% 

Receiving stolen property 


1961 

36 

— 

36 

30 

1962 

47 

— 

47 

38 

1963 

61 

2 

59 

50 

1964 

55 

— 

55 

42 

1965 

44 

— 

44 

44 

1966 

49 

— 

49 

41 

1967 

42 

— 

42 

42 

1968 

88 

— 

88 

77 



C he ating 



1961 

141 

20 

121 

108 

1962 

137 

17 

120 

115 

1963 

107 

11 

96 

65 

1964 

60 

7 

53 

37 

1965 

77 

6 

71 

6Q 

1966 

104 

6 

98 

69 

1967 

71 

12 

59 

59 

1968 

205 

24 

181 

169 



Mischief 



1961 

318 

27 

292 

217 

1962 

132 

36 

96 

64 

1963 

140 

25 

115 

103 

1964 

193 

20 

\lt 

141 

1965 

211 

23 

188 

168 

1966 

187 

25 

162 

131 

1967 

384 

42 

342 

242 

1968 

488 

36 

452 

442 


Criminal tresspass 



1961 

266 

31 

235 

210 

1962 

201 

15 

186 

* 118 


* 


A 

V 




. t 


LAW AND ORDER AND JUSTICE 


413 


APPENDIX B ( Contd.) 

Dismissed under 
section 203, 


Y ear 

Offences 

reported 

criminal procedure 
Code 

Returned 
as true 

Brought 
to trial 

1963 

358 

9 

349 

289 

1964 

267 

12 

255 

227 

1965 

256 

22 

234 

214 

1966 

154 

40 

114 

139 

1967 

135 

26 

109 

109 

1968 

382 

7 

375 

286 


Relating to documents and trade or property marks 


1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 


3 

3 

I 

5 

l 

5 


3 

3 

1 

3 

1 

5 


1968 

15 

— 

15 



Relating to marriage 


1961 

147 

4 

143 

1962 

54 

6 

48 

1963 

60 

5 

55 

1964 

43 

3 

40 

1965 

29 

— 

29 

1966 

75 

11 

64 

1967 

60 

7 

53 

1968 

1 57 

5 

52 


Criminal intimidation, insult and annoyance 


1961 

498 

137 

361 

1962 

132 

37 

. 95 

1963 

205 

18 

187 

1964 

229 

50 

279 

1965 

201 

26 

175 

1966 

386 

58 

328 

1967 

341 

52 

289 

1968 c 

272 

86 

186 


3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

5 

13 


137 

25 

40 

23 

29 

58 

53 

33 

297 

78 

90 

219 

175 

305 

204 

186 


CHAPTER XII 


'I I.STORY OF 

Local Self- 
Government 

IN THE 

District 


Municipalities 


LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 

v 

1 he introduction of local self-government in the district 
took place during the British rule. With transfer of adminis¬ 
trative responsibility from the East India Company to the Crown 
in 1858, the Government passed Act III of 1864 to reduce 
municipal administration to a system. The Suri Municipality 
was brought into being in the year 1876 under the ex-officio 
chairmanship of the District Officer. The District Road Cess 
Act of 1871 left room for the setting up of a District Board 
which was constituted under the Bengal Act III of 1885. Under 
the provisions of Bengal Act V of 1919 Union Boards came into 
being for the performance of local services and proper main¬ 
tenance of the rural police. After independence, the Bolpur 
municipality was established in 1950 and under the provisions of 
West Bengal Act I of 1957 and West Bengal Act XXV of 1963 
people of the district have banded themselves into Gram 
Panchayats, Anchal Panchayats, Anchalik Parishads and the 
Zilla Parishad. 

The following table furnishes important particulars of the 
three municipalities functioning in the district; 

Suri 

Date of establishment 1876 

Area in sq. miles 3.66 

Annual rateable value _ 

No. of holdings 4670 

Population 22,864 

No. of rate payers 4,175 

The last municipal election was held in 1967 on the basis 
of adult suffrage. Area of the municipalities were divided into 
a number of wards, each ward electing a Commissioner. Suri 
and Bolpur had 14 Commissioners each. While the appoint¬ 
ment of an Education Committee is mandatory under Section 
456 of the Act, the Commissioners usually appoint other. Stand¬ 
ing Committees as well for efficient transaction of business. The 


Bolpur 

1950 

5.07 

1.28,059 

5256» 

23,361 

5,256 


Ram pur hat 

1950 

1.97 


19,572 

3,173 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 


415 


Suri Municipality had during 1968-69 four such Standing Com¬ 
mittees, namely. Finance, Public Works, Sanitation & Public 
Health and Market Advisory; while Bolpur had Committees on 
Lighting, Public Works, Public Health & Sanitation and Finance. 

The Suri Municipality maintained 87 persons along with 
one tractor with*two trailers for the transportation ol night soils. 
The Bolpur Municipality maintained 43 persons for the same 
purpose along with 38 tubs. 

The two municipalities below also served notices for re¬ 
moving insanitary privies, improving inefficient privies, for 
making privies, removing insanitary tanks, draining or levelling 
of low lands, making sanitary latrines and for removing water 
hyacinth; the relevant figures for which valid for 1968-69 are 
given below: 

Notices served for Bolpur 

Removing insanitary privies 4 4 

Improving inefficient privies 4 

Making privies 

Making sanitary latrines 18 

Removing Insanitary tanks 1 

Draining or levelling of low lands 1 

Removing water hyacinth 1 

The said municipalities also look after proper maintenance 
of markets, restaurants and sh; ps. While Suri and Bolpur had 
one market each within their respective municipal, limits, Suri 
had 1,075 shops and restaurants and Bolpur had 900 of such 
establishments. The following table gives the quantity of items 
destroyed as untjt for human consumption during inspection in 
1968-69. 


destroyed 

Suri 

Bolpur 

Fish 

50 Kg. 

35 Kg. 

Meat 

20 „ 

— 

Sweets 

30 ,, 

— 

Flour 

32 „ 

— 

Vegetables 

75 „ 

— 


•J 


416 


BIRBHUM 


The Suri Municipality maintained 19 Coolies and 15 
Sweepers for cleaning of the drains and sweeping of the roads 
respectively. The organization had three trucks and two bullock 
carts for the disposal of refuse, while hand-carts were used for 
the removal of carcasses. The Bolpur municipality maintained 
42 persons for the above purposes. While the Suri municipality 
maintained a number of public latrines and privies, Bolpur had 
none to maintain. 


The table below would give an idea of the water supply 
arrangements of the Suri municipality for 1968-69. 


Total installed capacity of filtered 
water 

Number of house connection 
provided 

Average daily supply of filtered water 
in gallons to municipal population 

Average daily supply of filtered water 
in gallons to house connections 


1,32,000 gallons 
400 
3,00,000 
13,000 


The Bolpur municipality maintained 44 tubewells below a 
diameter of 5 inches and the average daily supply of water from 
them was 400 gallons. Besides, the municipality maintained 
some street hydrants, the source of supply being deep tubewells. 
The municipality will very shortly provide for house connec¬ 
tions. The Public Health Engineering Directorate of the Gov¬ 
ernment of West Bengal has since completed the Bolpur Water 
Supply Scheme at the revised estimated cost of Rs. 13,19,200 to 
provide supply at the rate of 15 G.P.C.D. for a population of 
25,000. The source of supply is tube-wells. The same Direc¬ 
torate completed a scheme in 1961 at the cost of Rs. 4.5 lakhs 
to augment water supply at Suri. The Directorate had taken up 
another scheme in 1965 at an estimated cost of Rs. 1,27,300. 
Even then the per capita supply was insufficient and unsatis¬ 
factory. That is why the Directorate has taken up two more 
schemes — one interim amounting to Rs. 2,81 v 000 and another 
comprehensive amounting to Rs. 10,95,000. At Rampurhat, 
water supply is solely dependent on a few 1|" dia. spot tube¬ 
wells, which hopelessly fail to cater to the required supply for 
municipal population. The Directorate has undertaken the pre¬ 
paration of schemes for supplying potable water to the municipal 
population of Rampurhat. » 




♦ •. 

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 


417 


The length of the drains maintained by two municipalities 
during 1968-69 is given in the table below: 


■ 

Total length of drains (km.) 
Length of pucca drains (km.) 
„ „ kutcha „ 


Suri 

Bolpur 

44 

54 

24 

14 

20 

40 

figures 

relating to 



Suri 

Bolpur 

Rampurhat 

Total length of roads (km) 

43.18 

30.5 

17.6 

Length of metalled roads (km.) 

43.18 

12.5 

4.8 

„ „ unmetalled „ 

— 

18.0 

11.2 




In the field of public health services, the municipalities ren¬ 
dered no other service but primary vaccination, re vaccination and 
inoculation, the figures of which for 1968-69 are given below (in 
respet of two municipalities): 



Suri 

Bolpur 

Primary vaccination 

232 

481 

Re-vaccination 

8147 

7292 

Inoculation 

— 

765 


For public safety, Suri and Bolpur municipalities provided 
337 and 520 electric street lights respectively, the source of 
power supply being in either case the State Electricity Board. 
While the Suri municipality had withdrawn the Kerosene street 
lights, Bolpur still maintained 109 of them. 

The Suri Municipality maintained, during 1968-69, 1 pre¬ 
primary, 1 primary and 2 Junior basic schools. The Bolpur 
municipality [during the said year maintained 8 Junior basic 

schools. Besides, Suri gave aid to some other institutions and 
4 libraries as well. 

The Suri municipality had 7 departments, such as. General, 
Collection, Sanitary, Licence, Public Works, Water Works and 
Market? The General Department was manned by 5 Clerks and 

27 


418 


BIRBHUM 


2 Peons during 1968-69; the Cellection Department by 6 Clerks, 

5 Collecting Sarkars and Peons, the Sanitation Department by 

6 Supervisors, 4 Drivers, 37 Coolies for road cleaning, 16 Coolies 
for drainage, 53 Coolies for private privies, 16 Coolies for road 
watering, 1 Sanitary Inspector, 1 Asstt. Sanitary Inspector, 1 
Health Assistant, 2 Vaccinators, 1 Peon; the Licence Department 
by 1 Inspector and 2 Peons; the Public Works Department by 

1 Overseer; the Water Works Department by 1 Superintendent, 

2 Drivers, 5 Wiremen, 2 Pipeline Mistries, 1 Peon, 1 Night 
Guard, 1 Meter Reader; the Market Department by 1 Superin¬ 
tendent, 4 Toll Collectors, 1 Peon and 1 Guard. The Bolpur 
municipality had 5 Departments, namely. Public Health & Sani¬ 
tation (with water supply). Public Works Department, Collec¬ 
tion Department (including Licence Department), Education 
Department and General Administration. The Public Health & 
Sanitation Department was headed by a Sanitary Inspector & 
Food Inspector; the Public Works Department by a Sub-Asstt. 
Engineer; the Collection Department by a Tax Daroga; the 
General Administration which also looks after the Education 
Department was headed by a Head Clerk. Besides, each de¬ 
partment was manned by different persons of various categories, 
such as. Public Health and Sanitation by 1 Sanitary Inspector, 

2 Health Assistants, 4 Supervisors, 1 Driver, 1 Cleaner, 1 Tube- 
well Mistry, 1 Assistant to the Mistry; the Public Works Depart¬ 
ment by 1 Sub-Assistant Engineer, 1 Sub-Overseer and 4 Coolies; 
the Collection Department by 3 Clerks, 1 Licence Inspector, 4 
Tax Collectors and 3 Peons; the Education Department by 59 
Teachers, 1 Head Clerk, 11 Assistant Clerks, 1 Cashier, 1 Peon, 

1 Watchman and 4 School Servants. If the number of letters 
received and issued by at least two municipalities are any indi¬ 
cation of other respective volume of business, the following table 
would give the same: 


Letters received Letters issued 

Suri 2625 615 

Bolpur 574 842 

The following table would indicate the sourcewise income 
of the municipalities for the year noted against each. 


* 

* f 

J 

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 419 


Suri 

1968-69 


Bolpur Rampurhat 
1971-72 1971-72 . 


Rates & Taxes 
Realisation under special 
Acts 

Revenue derived from 
Municipal property and 
Powers apart from 
Taxation 

Government Grants 
Miscellaneous 
Extraordinary 
Total receipts 


2,58,846.39 

2,932.00 

/ 

49,349.48 

1,42,111.17 

2,749.05 

84,300.15 

5,40,288.24 


2,07,073.86 

4,481.44 


18,589.00 

3,62,076.00 

4,910.00 

3,19,033.00 

9,16,814.30 


1,73,370.43 

645.00 


11,643.07 

1,56,944.22 

3,193.36 

1,12,963.39 

4,94,779.91 


The heads of expenditure and the corresponding amount 
spent by each are given in the table below: 


/ 


Head of expenditure 

Suri 

1968-69 

Bolpur 

1971-72 

Rampurhat 

1971-72 

General Administration and 

collection charges 

51,204.93 

72,027.00 

54,004.76 

Public Safety 

Public Health and 

14,652.77 

24,804.00 

i 

14,230.00 

convenience 

3,49,740.07 

2,64,771.51 

2,37,550.42 

Public Instruction 

20,803.04 

1,22,229.00 

33,859.67 

Miscellaneous 

15,096.76 

— 

17,947.87 

Extraordinary and Debt 

57,290.10 

— 

95,646.03 

Total 

5,08,787.67 

9,16,814.30 

4,94,779.91 




In 1967-68, the Birbhum Zilla Parishad had 44 members, J ILLA 

Parishad 

ol whom 43 were men and 1 woman. Four of the members 
were Muslims, four belonged to the Scheduled Castes and one 
to the Scheduled Tribes. There were 7 Standing Committees, 
particulars of which are given in the table below: 




420 


B1RBHUM 


Name of the 

No. of 

No. of 

A verage 

Standing Committee 

meetings 

members 

attendance 

Finance & Establishment 

5 

10 

7 

Public Health 

3 

12 

7 

Public Works 

3 

11 ‘ 

8 

11 

Agriculture & Irrigation 

2 

16. 

Industry & Co-operation 

— 

12 


Public & Social Welfare 

4 

12 

7 

Primary Education: General 

6 

15 

6 

Primary Education: Special 

2 

15 

8 

The above standing Committees dealt 
h are indicated in ihe following table 

with specific subjects 


Name of the Standing 
Committee 


Subjects dealt with 


Finance and 
Establishment 


Public Health 


Public Works 


Finance, budget, taxation, administra¬ 
tion, establishment, planning, co-ordi¬ 
nation and supervision. 

Public health, sanitation, nutrition, 
rural water, dispensaries, hospitals, 
family planning. 

Roads, bridges, culverts, construction 
and maintenance of public buildings, 

. works and properties, rural housing.’ 
Agriculture & Irrigation Agriculture, food production, irriga- 

tion, forests, fisheries, animal husban-' 
dr y> Poultry, veterinary services. 

Industry & Co-operation Marketing, warehousing, food proces- 

sing, co-operative societies, rural credit, 
D ,.. . 0 , sma11 savings, cottage industries. 

Public & Social Welfare Social education, recreation, social 

welfare including welfare of women, 
children and backward communities, 
tribal welfare, adult education, infor¬ 
mation and mass communication, pub¬ 
licity and statistics. 

Appointed by the State Government, the Executive Officer 

doTof!L P the :r B r, 8ai civii service - ™' s 

n of the Panshad and he secures co-ordination between the 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 


421 


Parishad, its Standing Committees and the district level officers^ 
The complements of personnel under him for 1967-68 are given 


in the table below: 

Name of the Post 

• 

Executive Office^, W.B.C.S. 
Office Superintendent-cum- 
Head Accountant 
Asstt. Accountant-cum-Cashier 
Head Assistant (Vacant) 

Upper Division Clerk (Vacant) 
Lower Division Clerk 
Steno-Typist 

Office Peons & Orderlies 
Motor Driver 
Medical Officer 
Dressers & Compounders 
Servants of dispensaries 
Night Guards & Sweepers 


Scale of pay 

No. of 

Rs. 

staff 

325-35-1000 

1 

300-20-400-25-450 

1 

200-10-300 

1 

250-15-400 

1 

200-10-300 

1 

125-3-140-4-200 

9 

175-7-245-8-325 

1 

60-1-75 

13 

100-3-136-4-140 

1 

200-10-400 

10 

50-2-100 

10 

20-2-45 

10 

20.00 each 
(Retaining fee) 

12 


Besides, the District Engineer headed the technical wing of 
the Parishad with the following personnel. 

DISTRICT ENGINEER S OFFICE UNDER ZILLA PARISHAD 


Name of the post 

District Engineer 
Overseers 
Sub-overseers 
Surveyor # 
Draftsman 
Assistant Surveyor 
Road Sarkars 
Bungalow Chowkidars 
— do — 

Sweepers (Retaining fee) 
Arboriculture Mali 
Overseers’ Peons 


Scale of pay No. of 

Rs. staff 

700-50-60-1350* . 1 

200-10-400 3 

175-7-245-8-325 1 

— do — 1 

— do — 1 

100-3-136-4-140 1 

— do — 8 

30-1-50-2-60 4 

20-1-45 ' 11 

20/- each & 1 @ 25/- 9 

30-1-65 2 

35-1-45 4 




#Not approved by Government and sub-judice. 


422 


BIRBHUM 


The income and expenditure 
shown in the following table: 


Heads of Income 

Amount 

Opening balance 

Rs. 

For Specific 

Schemes 

3,79,615.00 

Untied funds 

2,51,602.00 

Grants and contribu¬ 
tion made by the 
Central/State Govt. 
U/S/-40 (I) (a): 
Land Revenue 

1,37,050.00 

Augmentation 

24,658.00 

Subvention for D.A. 

to the employees 

22,028.00 

Other Relief, if any 

15,000.00 


Grants for specific 
schemes other than 
Relief 18,400.00 

Other Govt, grants 9,600.00 


Proceeds of Road 

Cess U/S (1) (d) 1,33,756.00 


Receipts from Toll 

rates etc. U/S 40 

(1) (e) " 6,316.00 


of the Parishad for 

1967-68 are 

Heads of expenditure 

Amount 

Establishment: 

Salaries and allow¬ 

Rs. 

ances of personnel 

2,00,164.00 

T.A. of personnel 
T.A. to the members 
of Z.P. (including 
Chairman and Vice- 

6,644.00 

Chairman) 

11,855.00 

Office charges 
Allotment to 
Anchalik Parishads 

7,768.00 

U/S 18 (1) (b) 

2,501.00 

To undertake Schemes 

U/S 18 (1) (a) (i) 

To manage Public 
Utility services and 
institution U/S 

3,73,940.00 

18 (1) (a) (hi) 

27,781.00 


To make grants to 
Public institutions 

U/S 18 (1) (a) (iv) 

1,456.00 

To establish scholar¬ 
ship and awards 

U/S 18 (1) (a) (vi) 

2,050.00 

To adopt measure for 
relief U/S 


18 (1) (a) (vii) 

27,398.00 

Other expenditure 

U/S 44 (a) (b) (c) 

43,541.00 

Total Expenditure 8,29,541.00 



LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 


423 


Heads of Income Amount 

Rs. 

Closing balance 

Receipts from institu¬ 
tion U/S 40.(l)*(f) 1,686.00 

All other receipts 
recovered by or on 
behalf of the Z.P. 59,996.00 

Total Receipts 4,28,490.00 

Total Income (in¬ 
cluding balance) 10,59,707.00 


Heads of expenditure Amount 

Rs. 


For Specific 

Schemes 2,30,256.00 

Refund of G.R. & 

T.R. Debts 

Deposits Advance 1,24,353.00 
G.R. & T.R. Refund 


The district had 19 Anchalik Parishads during 1967-68, the 
composition of each of which is given in the table below: 


Anchalik 

Parishad 


Name of the 

Area in 

Total 

No. of 

Anchalik Parishad 

sq. miles 

population 

members 

Mahammad Bazar 

120.67 

66,701 

33 

Sainthia 

121.05 

1,04.779 

36 

Bolpur-Sriniketan 

122.28 

81,415 

28 

Labhpur 

103.89 

91,655 

25 

Nanur 

120.04 

98,681 

26 

Dubrajpur 

138.75 

97,125 

32 

Ilambazar 

100.94 

68,201 

27 

Rajnagar 

82.00 

42,145 

18 

Suri I 

60.66 

44,216 

20 

Suri II 

52.30 

38,920 

20 

Khayrasol 

106.00 

78,183 

29 

Nalhati I 

96.09 

91,703 

27 

Nalhati II 

35.39 

46,709 

17 

Murarai I 

65.22 

64,830 

25 

Murarai II 

71.21 

74,746 

23 

Mayureswar I 

86.00 

71,812 

41 

Mayureswar II 

61.86 

57,920 

23 

A rj 

Rampurhat I 

111.00 

77,211 

27 

Rampurhat II 

71.56 

77,809 

21 


The following table would indicate the sex composition and 
community distribution of the members of each Parishad, 


424 


BIRBHUM 


Community Distribution 


Name of the 
Anchalik 

Sex 

Composition 

Hindu 

(including 


S.C. 

S.T. 

Parishad 

Male 

Female S.C. & S.T.) Muslim 

only only 

Mahammad Bazar 

31 

2 

28 

5 

3 

2 

Sainthia 

34 

2 

34 

w 2 

6 

— 

Bolpur-Sriniketan 

26 

2 

25 

3 

3 

1 

Labhpur 

23 

2 

23 

2 

2 

■— 

Nanur 

25 

1 

21 

5 

2 

— 

Dubrajpur 

29 

3 

28 

4 

2 

— 

Ilambazar 

25 

2 

15 

12 

1 

1 

Rajnagar 

25 

2 

16 

2 

4 

1 

Suri I 

16 

2 

18 

2 

2 

— 

Suri 11 

18 

2 

14 

6 

2 

1 

Khayrasol 

27 

2 

27 

2 

4 

— 

Nalhati I 

25 

2 

22 

5 

4 

— 

Nalhati II 

15 

2 

12 

5 

5 

— 

Murarai I 

23 

2 

15 

10 

3 

1 

Murarai II 

21 

2 

9 

14 

2 

— 

Mayureswar I 

39 

2 

34 

7 

5 

1 

Mayureswar II 

21 

2 

21 

2 

2 

— 

Rampurhat I 

24 

3 

22 

5 

2 

— 

Rampurhat II 

19 

2 

15 

6 

3 

— 


The figures for the Hindu membership include those of the 
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, who have also been 
shown separately. 

Each Anchalik Parishad functioned during the year through 
several Standing Committees, the particulars of which are fur¬ 
nished in the table in Appendix A. 

Each Anchalik Parishad maintained a fund to which were 
credited grants from Panchayat Department, receipts from the 
Zilla Parishad and receipts on account of tolls, rates and fees 
levied by it and from this fund the Parishad incurred its diverse 
expenditure. The two tables in Appendices B and C would 
indicate the patterns of income and expenditure of the Parishads 
for 1967-68. 

The following table indicates the Anchalik Parishadwise number 
of Anchal Panchayats along with the figures relating to the 
population covered by them, number of householders in them 
and the number of tax, rates and fees payers for 1967-68. * 


4 


* local self government 



Number of Tax, Rates and Fees payers 



No. of 

Name of the 

Anchal 

Anchalik 

Pan- 

Parishad 

chjyate 

Mahammad Bazar 

12 

# 

Sainthia 

13 

Bolpur-Sriniketan 

9 

Labhpur 

9 

Nanur 

9 

Dubrajpur 

11 

Ilambazar 

9 

Rajnagar 

5 

Suril 

7 

Suri II 

6 

Khayrasol 

10 

Nalhati I 

9 

Nalhati II 

4 

Murarai I 

7 

Murarai II 

7 

Mayureswar I 

8 

Mayureswar II 

7 

Rampurhat I 

9 

Rampurhat II 

7 

Total 

158 


Popula¬ 
tion 
covered 
by the 
A.P. 

No. of 
house 
holder 
in the 
A.P. 

Under 
section 
57 (1) 
(a) 

66,701 

14,197 

12,664 

1,04,779 

19,957 

17,430 

81,415 

15,124 

15,040 

91,655 

20,704 

13,581 

98,681 

18,572 

15,299 

97,125 

18,651 

18,651 

68,201 

16,830 

15,371 

42,145 

9,432 

8,819 

44,216 

9,322 

7,256 

38,920 

7,377 

6,041 

78,183 

15,954 

15,877 

91,703 

17,796 

17,341 

46,709 

9,379 

9,379 

64,830 

12,967 

10,634 

74,746 

22,158 

22,114 

71,812 

15,953 

13,616 

55,135 

11,450 

10,790 

77,211 

15,400 

14,299 

77,809 

17,497 

16,499 


13,71,976 2,88,720 2,60,701 


Under 

section 

57(1) 

(b) 

Under 
section 
57 (2) 

Total 

996 

3,424 

17,084 

3,567 

4,404 

25,403 

2,304 

4,125 

21,469 

5,018 

4,918 

23,517 

2,187 

3,873 

21,359 

3,089 

3,306 

25,046 

776 

3,479 

19,626 

584 

2,643 

12,046 

2,375 

3,650 

13,281 

2,037 

2,856 

10,934 

914 

4,123 

20,914 

6,922 

5,743 

30,006 

1,000 

2,515 

12,894 

6,517 

3,053 

20,204 

6,068 

4,161 

32,343 

1,162 

3,809 

18,587 

609 

3,127 

14,526 

922 

4,446 

19,667 

5,015 

4,168 

25,682 


52,064 71,823 3,84,588 


The total number of members of the Anchal Panchayats as 
also their number of meetings and average attendance would be 
evident from the following table: 


Total No. of 
members of the 
Anchal * 
Panchayats 


No. of 
meetings 


Average 

attendance 


153 

116 

209 

' 186 

183 

76 

•183 

86 

239 

89 

176 

93 

126 

86 


12 

8 

14 

15 
11 
15 

8 


4 





) 

Total No. of 
members of the 
Anchal 
Panchayats 

k 

X V 

k 

BIRBHUM 

No. of 
meetings 

k 

V 

k 

t 

V 

k 

k 

Average 

attendance 

74 

23 

8 

123 

56 

7 

116 

60 

11 

154 

72 

9 

205 

85 

10 

92 

59 

12 

147 

63 

9 

161 

78 

10 

201 

80 

15 

126 

56 

7 

186 

108 

12 

201 

63 

8 

3,055 

1,517 

201 


The sex composition and community distribution of the 
membership of the Anchal Panchayats are given in the table 
below: 


Community Distribution 


Name of the 
Anchalik 
Parishad 

Sex Hindu 

composition (inclu- 

—--ding 

Men Women S.C.S.T.) Muslims Others 

Sch. 

castes 

Mahammad Bazar 

153 


119 34 


10 

Sainthia 

208 

1 

179 30 


12 

Bolpur-Sriniketan 

183 


151 32 


15 

Labhpur 

182 

1 

149 34 


4 

Nanur 

238 

1 

182 57 


15 

Dubrajpur 

175 

1 

131 45 


7 

Ilambazar 

125 

1 

62 64 


12 

Rajnagar 

74 


64 10 

k> 

9 

Suri I 

123 

_, 

94 29 


6 

Suri II 

116 

_, 

79 37 


6 

Khayrasol 

154 

_ 

128 26 


13 

Nalhatil 

204 

1 

120 85 


31 

Nalhati II 

92 

, 

v 31 61 


10 

Murarai I 

147 

_. 

60 87 


8 

Murarai II 

161 

- 

237 124 


1 

20 

Mayureswar I 

201 

_. 

152 49 


Mayureswar II 

126 

_. 

105 21 


1 

15 

Rampurhat I 

186 

_ 

135 51 


Rampurhat II 

201 

— 

100 101 

— 

16 


Sch. 

tribes 

10 

2 

1 

1 


3 
2 
1 
1 

4 
1 


1 

15 


Total 3,049 6 2,078 977 — 209 * 42 


k * 


x, 


LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT 


427 


A Secretary supervises the day-to-day business of each Anchal 
Panchayat, which has also Chowkidars, Dafadars and other sta